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Geology of the Kilmarnock district — brief explanation of the geological map Sheet 22E Kilmarnock

K A T MacPherson, R A Smith and M C Akhurst

Bibliographic reference: MacPherson, K A T, Smith, R A, and Akhurst, M C. 2001. Geology of the Kilmarnock district — a brief explanation of the geological map. Sheet Explanation of the British Geological Survey. 1:50 000 Series Sheet 22E Kilmarnock (Scotland)

Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey, 2001.

© NERC copyright 2001

(Front cover) Front cover. Dean Castle, Kilmarnock [NS 4370 3942] is constructed mainly from sandstone quarried from the Lower Coal Measures in the nearby Dean Castle Quarry (D6083).

(Rear cover)

(Figure 1) Geological succession in the Kilmarnock district.

Notes

The word 'district' is used here to refer to the area represented by the geological map 1:50 000 Series Sheet 22E Kilmarnock. National grid references in the text are given in the form [NS 571 309] and all lie within the 100 km square NS.

Lithostratigraphical symbols shown in brackets, for example (KRW) refer to symbols used on Sheet 22E.

BGS services and products relating to the district are listed in the Information Sources.

Acknowledgements

This Sheet Explanation was compiled by D G Woodhall, Divisional Editor, Integrated Geoscience Surveys (North), Edinburgh, and is based solely on the approved version of the Sheet Description for the Kilmarnock district authored by K A T MacPherson, R A Smith and M C Akhurst. M T Dean contributed to the palaeontology K E Rollin to concealed geology and E R Phillips to petrology and geochemistry. Full acknowledgements are to be found in the Sheet Description.

The grid, where it is used on figures, is the National Grid taken from Ordnance Survey mapping.

© Crown copyright reserved Ordnance Survey licence number GD272191 /2001.

Geology of the Kilmarnock district (summary from rear cover)

(Rear cover)

The Kilmarnock district lies towards the southwestern end of the Midland Valley, and incorporates parts of Ayrshire, Renfrewshi re and Lanarkshire. The rocks record over 400 million years of geological history, ranging from the Silurian through to the most recent man-made deposits.

The oldest rocks are of continental fluvial origin and were subsequently intruded by granodiorite and diorites of the Distinkhorn Complex in the early Devonian. Regional uplift and erosion followed, and in Carboniferous times deposition of the coal-bearing sequence occurred in hot tropical conditions. The cyclical nature of the Carboniferous sedimentary successions reflects the dynamic interaction of eustasy and tectonism in a fluviodeltaic environment. Regional volcanism occurred on two occasions, and the volcanoes are preserved as thick basaltic lavas. Active faulting throughout the Carboniferous affected the distribution and thickness of the sedimentary strata. During Permo-Triassic times an arid continental environment was established; aeolian sandstones accumulated in the Mauchine Basin and alkali basalt lavas are also preserved. The final moulding of the district occurred during the Quaternary and, although there were several glaciations, only those deposits associated with the last Main Late Devensian Glaciation are preserved.

The solid rocks and drift deposits of the district contain a wealth of minerals, and there is a long history of mineral extraction and industrial development. It is essential for planning and development purposes to have knowledge of the mineral resource potential of the district, whether related to energy minerals, coal and peat, or to groundwater. With continued urbanisation and development in the district, environmental geological information is also needed on issues which may affect planning, such as mineral exploitation, geohazards related to foundation conditions and slope stability, the extent of abandoned mine workings, groundwater pollution, susceptibility to flooding, and the preservation of the natural geological heritage.

Chapter 1 Introduction

This Sheet Explanation provides a summary of the geology of the district covered by the geological 1:50 000 Series Sheet 22E Kilmarnock, published in solid and solid and drift editions in 1999. A fuller description of the geology is provided by the Sheet Description (MacPherson et al., 2000), and detailed information can be found in Technical Reports for some of the 1:10 000 scale geological maps.

The district lies in the south-western part of the Midland Valley of Scotland extending southwards from the southern suburbs of Glasgow to the hills south of Kilmarnock. The population is concentrated in the Glasgow suburbs and around Kilmarnock: elsewhere the district is largely rural and a large tract of moorland lies north of Kilmarnock.

The bedrock consists of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Silurian, Siluro-Devonian, Carboniferous and Early Permian age, deposited at various times between about 420 and 280 million years ago (Figure 1). Silurian sandstones and siltstones (Waterhead and Dungavel groups) were deposited in a terrestrial fluviatile regime. These strata were uplifted and eroded during and after an interval in which strike-slip tectonics were active. Sedimentation resumed at about the transition between the Silurian and Devonian, and involved the terrestrial deposition of coarse conglomerates followed by fluviatile sandstones (Greywacke Conglomerate and Swanshaw formations). During the Early Devonian, calc-alkaline basalts and andesites were erupted and locally overlain by volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates (Duneaton Volcanic and Auchtitench formations). Apparently associated with the volcanic rocks is the Distinkhorn Plutonic Complex, which is intruded into Silurian and Siluro-Devonian strata. The Acadian (middle Devonian) omgenic episode produced local folding and subsequent uplift and erosion of these rocks.

During the earliest part of the Carboniferous, fluviatile sandstones including pedogenic carbonate concretions (Kinnesswood Formation) were deposited unconformably on older rocks. The succeeding sequence of grey mudstone (Ballagan Formation) contains laminated dolostones and minor evaporites indicating deposition in a coastal lagoonal environment. After a minor hiatus, intense volcanism produced a widespread lava field (Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation) th‘Lt now forms the extensive moorland tract north of Kilmamock. The lavas are mainly basalts and trachybasalts thought to have erupted from fissures or sites outwith the district although there is evidence for local subaerial stratovolcanoes (Plate 1).

Later during the Carboniferous, the 'Clyde Plateau' volcanism gave way to the sedimentation of sandstones and mudstones (Kirkwood and Lawmuir formations) in a fluviodeltaic environment, the earliest of which contains detritus derived from the underlying volcanic rocks. There followed a marine transgression, which was diachronous in that the oldest marine sediments appear not to have encroached on the southern part of the district. Mudstones and limestones (Lower Limestone Formation) were deposited. Succeeding deltaic sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, seatrocks and coals (Limestone Coal and Upper Limestone formations) form a series of upward-coarsening cycles, the earliest of which overlap onto older Carboniferous and Siluro-Devonian strata. Deposition was interrupted initially by two short-lived marine incursions (within the Limestone Coal Formation) and subsequently by several more prolonged periods of marine deposition resulting in the deposition of fossiliferous limestones and mudstones (within the Upper Limestone Formation). Deposition south of the Inchgotrick Fault was attenuated, and was eventually terminated over a wider area by uplift and erosion. Following a hiatus, deposition of fluviatile sandstone in upward-fining cycles resumed (Passage Formation). However, this was interrupted by renewed volcanism involving the eruption of basalt lava flows (Troon Volcanic Member). Penecontemporaneous tropical weathering of the lavas produced kaolinitic and bauxitic clays (Ayrshire Bauxitic Clay Member). Another hiatus in sedimentation was followed by the resumption of deposition of cyclical fluviodeltaic sequences with seatrock and coals (Coal Measures), which were affected by syndepositional faulting particularly along the Inchgotrick Fault. There were a number of short-lived but widespread marine transgressions. The highest strata (Upper Coal Measures) were affected by downward percolation of oxidising waters in Permo–Triassic times and most are stained reddish brown. During the end-Carboniferous Hercynian orogeny the Carboniferous rocks were faulted and folded.

Uplift and erosion brought about by the Hercynian orogeny was followed by volcanism during the Early Permian, which resulted in the eruption of alkali basalt lavas (Mauchline Volcanic Formation). Dolerite dykes of late Carboniferous to Early Permian age commonly trend east–west. Minor volcanic plugs containing basaltic breccia are probably of similar age. The Early Permian volcanism was followed by the deposition of aeolian sandstones (Mauchline Sandstone Formation).

During the Palaeogene, about 52 million years ago, a series of north-west-trending dolerite dykes were intruded across the district. These are minor representatives of the magmatism, which centred on northwest Scotland during the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean.

A major unconformity exists between the extensive drift deposits of Quaternary age (Pleistocene and Holocene) and bedrock that is mostly Palaeozoic in age. These deposits date mainly from the most recent, Late Devensian, glaciation, when the district was buried beneath an ice sheet. This glaciation (Dimlington Stadial) reached its maximum extent about 18 000 years ago. The dominant direction of ice movement across the district was towards the south. By about 13 000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated leaving glaciofluvial sand and gravel, mainly to the south of Eaglesham and around Darvel. A subsequent colder period (Loch Lomond Stadial), about 11 000 years ago may have produced local solifluction deposits and landslips. As the present drainage system was established during the Holocene, alluvium was deposited mainly on floodplains and river terraces. Thick peat deposits accumulated in poorly drained hollows and on gentle slopes. Local made ground, worked and infilled ground are recent products of human activity.

History of research

The original geological survey of the district was published at a scale of 1:63 360 in 1870 (Sheet 22) followed soon after by an accompanying short memoir (Geikie et al., 1872). There was a revision early in the 20th century, and new solid and drift editions were published in 1928. An accompanying memoir published in 1930 (Richey et al., 1930) includes a history of research up to that time.

More recent research on the Silurian rocks of the Lesmahagow Inlier and the Distinkhorn Plutonic Complex is summarised in the Hamilton memoir for the adjacent district to the east (Paterson et al., 1998). The lithostratigraphy of the Lanark Group was established in the New Cumnock district to the south (Smith, 1999).

The recently established Carboniferous lithostratigraphy (Hall et al., 1998; Browne et al., 1996) has built on the work of Monro (1982), Paterson and Hall (1986) and Paterson et al. (1990). The Clyde Plateau Lava Formation has been described by Phillips and MacPherson (1996) and a welded pyroclastic deposit within this formation has been distinguished by MacPherson and Phillips (1998). The petrochemistry of these lavas has been compared with other Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks within the Midland Valley (Macdonald, 1975). The area of nondeposition of the Lower Limestone Formation in the Kilmarnock district was delineated by Goodlet (1957) and, the relevant Carboniferous palaeontology was revised by Wilson (1967; 1989), Brand (1977), Clayton et al. (1977) and Dean (1997). The interplay of Namurian sedimentation, volcanicity and tectonics within the district is referred to by Read (1989).

Much of the Quaternary history of the district is covered in the memoirs of the adjacent areas (Paterson et al., 1998; Hall et al., 1998). A study of the glaciofluvial deposits around Darvel also describes proglacial lake deposits (Nickless et al., 1978).

Chapter 2 Geological description

Silurian and Devonian

Rocks of Silurian and Siluro-Devonian age, details of which are summarised in (Figure 2), form a broad triangular outcrop on the southern side of the Inchgotrick Fault in the south-east corner of the district (Figure 3), where they are poorly exposed due to extensive peat deposits. The oldest rocks form the extreme western edge of the Lesmahagow inlier (Paterson et al., 1998). To the west of this fault-bounded inlier is an area of Siluro-Devonian strata formerly classified as the Lower Old Red Sandstone (Richey et al., 1930) but now included within the Lanark Group (Browne et al., in press). Both the Lesmahagow succession and Lanark Group (Figure 1) are intruded by granodiorite and diorite, and associated minor intrusions, of the Distinkhorn Complex.

Silurian rocks comprise the Waterhead and Dungavel groups. The Waterhead Group (WHD) is undivided and the base is faulted. The overlying Dungavel Group includes the Plewland Sandstone (PLWS) (Figure 2). Older formations are present farther east, and are described in the memoir of the adjoining Hamilton district (Paterson et al., 1998). Faults delimit the Plewland Sandstone outcrop. Consequently the base is concealed and therefore a reliable estimate of overall thickness cannot be made; over 1400 m has been estimated within the Hamilton district (Paterson et al., 1998).

Siluro-Devonian rocks comprise the Lanark Group. The Greywacke Conglomerate Formation (GRWC), which lies at the base, is exposed in an outlier near Blacksidend [NS 583 296], where it rests unconformably on the Plewland Sandstone Formation. The succeeding Swanshaw Formation (SWAS) is faulted against Silurian strata, and is estimated to be in excess of 90 m thick. The age of these two formations is uncertain: traditionally they have been interpreted as Devonian, but are possibly latest Silurian. The overlying Duneaton Volcanic Formation (DNV) is of similar thickness also and is estimated to be of Early Devonian age (412 Ma). At Dykehead Plantation [NS 560 356], south of Darvel, a small area of locally derived coarse volcaniclastic conglomerate interbedded with volcaniclastic sandstones (10 to 30 m thick) overlies the lavas of the Duneaton Volcanic Formation. These volcaniclastic rocks are tentatively correlated with the Auchtitench Formation (AUC) (Smith, 1995).

Siluro -Devonian (408–412 Ma) intrusions of granodiorite (G^D) and diorite (H) on Distinkhorn Hill [NS 586 330] and the adjacent Hart, Glen Garr and Tincom hills form part of the talc-alkaline Distinkhorn Complex. This is the only representative of the Lower Devonian Caledonian 'Newer Granites' within the Midland Valley of Scotland. Its metamorphic aureole is cut by numerous minor intrusions of microdiorite (P) and microgranite (F) that appear to postdate the metamorphism but do not penetrate Carboniferous rocks. These intrusions are believed to be of Early Devonian age.

Carboniferous

Carboniferous rocks underlie most of the district. The Inverclyde, Strathclyde, Clackmannan and Coal Measures groups range in age from early Dinantian (Courceyan) to late Silesian (Bolsovian) (Figure 1).

The Kinnesswood Formation (KNW) (Figure 4) of the Inverclyde Group rests unconformably on Lower Devonian strata, and is estimated to be up to 120 m thick. Pedogenic carbonate, mainly calcite, is an integral component of the formation, being precipitated within developing soil profiles generally as nodules scattered through either or both of the lithological members of the cycles. In some cases the nodules are abundant enough to form beds of limestone (calcrete), commonly known as 'cornstone', which are locally several metres thick. These comstones have been exploited locally for lime, notably in an old mine at Cessnock Castle [NS 513 355] and in quarries at Auchencloigh [NS 529 317]. There is a gradational contact with the overlying Ballagan Formation (BGN) (Figure 4), the base of which is taken at the base of the lowest bed of grey mudstone. Its top is a significant unconformity that marks the base of the overlying Strathclyde and Clackmannan groups. This unconformity is greatest just south of Hillhouse Farm [NS 535 349], where the Ballagan Formation is absent and strata of the much younger Clackmannan Group lie directly upon the Kinnesswood Formation. Due to this penecontemporaneous erosion, the thickness of the Ballagan Formation is highly variable, ranging from 0–120 m.

The Strathclyde Group incorporates the Clyde Plateau Volcanic, Kirkwood and Lawmuir formations (Monro, 1982; Paterson and Hall, 1986) (Figure 1), (Figure 4). South of the Inchgotrick Fault, the Strathclyde Group is attenuated and in places overlapped by younger Carboniferous (Clackmannan Group) strata. The Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation (CPV) (Figure 4) crops out over most of the central and northern parts of the district, and forms an area of rounded, hilly, upland moorland. In its more northern and western parts there are extensive crags and hills which, coupled with the relatively thin cover of superficial deposits, produce considerable exposure. Farther to the south and east, especially on the lower lying areas where there is usually a thicker cover of basin peat and extensive forestation, exposures are mainly limited to stream sections and the crests of the higher hills. The maximum thickness cannot be reliably estimated because the base is not seen north of the Inchgotrick Fault. It is probably in excess of 500 m thick but evidence from seismic profiles (Hall, 1974) suggests that it could be greater than 900 m, with a significant variation across the Lugton Water Fault. Phillips and MacPherson (1996) established several informal lithostratigraphical units, which indicate that the basaltic and trachytic activity may have been penecontemporaneous (Figure 5). However, in order to maintain continuity with the published maps of adjacent districts, the traditional MacGregor (1928) classification is retained on Sheet 22E Kilmarnock. The informal lithostratigraphical units are shown as an inset on this map, and in (Figure 5). Pyroclastic deposits (Z) are rare, except in the eastern edge of the district. The Gowk Stane Member (GOWK) consists of extensive proximal (Plate 2) and reworked deposits (Plate 3) associated with trachyte lavas and plugs. This close association of proximal pyroclastic deposits with minor trachytic intrusions [NS 570 523]; [NS 573 515]; [NS 608 483] has been used as evidence for the presence of one or more stratovolcanoes the Eaglesham and Laigh Huntlawrig Volcanic Centre (MacPherson and Phillips, 1997). Two other trachytic plugs at Neilston Pad [NS 475 552] and Barr Hill [NS 480 557] represent the root of a volcanic centre in the Neilston area. The location of these and other trachytic plugs has been controlled by the dominant north-east- and north-west-trending fault systems. A similar relationship between eruptive centres and Caledonoidtrending faults has been recognised elsewhere within the Midland Valley of Scotland (see Cameron and Stephenson, 1985). There is little evidence of the extrusive centres that produced the large areas of basalt and trachybasalt lava. There are several minor basaltic plugs (Plate 4) but these appear to be related to a later eruptive phase, which suggests that the eruptive centres for most of the basaltic lavas are either concealed, had a fissure form, or were sited outwith the district.

The Kirkwood Formation (KRW) (Figure 4) is variable in thickness, but averages around 15 m. It forms a series of narrow outcrops around the edge of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation (Figure 3). The Lawmuir Formation (LWM) (Figure 4) is absent from most of the district, and the Kirkwood Formation is directly overlain by the Clackmannan Group. The strata present in a small outlier at Lochcraig Reservoir [NS 538 508], which overlies the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation, has nominally been included in the Lawmuir Formation, but may be part of the Clackmannan Group. Otherwise the Lawmuir Formation is present only at depth, in the Barrhead area north of the Clarkston Fault.

The Clackmannan Group (Figure 1), (Figure 6) has a diachronous base and, in the southern half of the district, part or all of the Lower Limestone Formation may be absent, with the younger Limestone Coal Formation overlapping onto older Carboniferous and Siluro–Devonian strata.

The Lower Limestone Formation (LLGS) is characterised by the presence of a high proportion of marine mudstones and limestones (Figure 6). The base is taken at the base of the Hurlet Limestone (HUR), and the top is defined at the top of the Top Hosie Limestone (TOHO). The Hurlet Limestone is usually 2 to 3 m thick and consists of dark grey, hard, crinoidal limestone interbedded with calcareous mud-stone. It has been extensively quarried and mined, as at Thomtonhall [NS 592 552]. Between 2 and 3 m higher in the sequence are the Blackhall Limestone (BLLS) (formerly the Thorntonhall Wee) and overlying fossiliferous calcareous mud-stones of the Neilson Shell Bed. The upper part of the formation includes four beds of limestone, the Main Hosie (MAHO), Mid Hosie (MIHO), Second Hosie (SHLS) (formerly the Anvil) and Top Hosie, collectively known as the Hosie limestones (HOLS). Like the Blackhall Limestone, the Main, Mid and Second Hosie limestones are hard, bioclastic limestones, but the Top Hosie Limestone is commonly more argillaceous. The Hosie limestones and the Neilson Shell Bed are separated by the Hosie Sandstone, which is only a few metres thick.

Farther west in the Uplawmoor–Stewarton–Pokelly Castle [NS 459 452] triangle, the Hosie limestones are variably developed within the upper part of the formation. In some areas all four beds are present, in others they coalesce to form two or three beds, and in some places the entire Hosie Limestone sequence is represented by a number of thin limy ribs within a sequence of calcareous mudstones. The thick accumulation of limestone and calcareous strata within the Hurlet, Blackhall and Hosie limestones has locally been exploited for lime and is part of one of the most significant limestone resources of central Scotland (MacPherson, 1986a). East and south-east of Waterside [NS 487 435] the sequence becomes thinner through nondeposition, and is absent and overlapped by younger strata near Darvel.

South of the Inchgotrick Fault (Figure 3) near Cessnock Castle, the entire formation is represented by a sequence of calcareous mudstones containing two thin limestones, which are correlated with the Hosie limestones. in exposures farther east, the Blackhall Limestone is present but the sequence is very thin and the Hosie limestones are represented by a similar development to that of Cessnock Castle (Richey et al., 1930).

The thickness of the Lower Limestone Formation varies from 0 to about 60 m. These variations can be abrupt, due to differences in the available sediment accommodation space across the main synsedimentary faults (e.g. Inchgotrick Fault) or more gradational due to the onstepping diachronous nature of the formation. Consequently, thin and incomplete sequences, condensed sequences and areas of nondeposition occur (Richey et al., 1930; Goodlet, 1957; Browne et al., 1985). The Limestone Coal Formation (LSC) includes the strata between the top of the Hosie limestones and the base of the Index Limestone (Figure 6). Thickness variations (from 10 to 100 m) are due to abrupt variations in sedimentation rates across the main faults (Lugton Water, Annick Water, Inchgotrick and Clarkston), and to onstep of the diachronous base of the formation onto the pre-Limestone Coal Formation strata (Richey et al., 1930; MacGregor and Manson, 1935; Monro, 1982; Browne et al., 1985; MacPherson, 1992). The formation is present in the hanging walls of the main faults, most notably along the Barrhead and Clarkston faults (Figure 3). Several thick coal seams are also present, including the Knightswood Gas (KDG), Glasgow Shale (GWS), Stone (STON), Fossil Main (PMA) and Barrhead Main, occur in these areas. Other thick seams are also present, such as the Jubilee, King, Ashfield Coking and Fossil Fourteen-Inch coals. Many of these coals have been exploited either within the outcrop of the Limestone Coal Formation or at depth beneath the overlying Upper Limestone Formation. The Limestone Coal Formation is present along the valley of the Dusk Water between Lugton and Uplawmoor. The sequence in this area is similar although somewhat thinner, to that of the Kilbirnie and Dairy areas. Within the Kilbirnie Mudstone Member, the Dairy Clayband Ironstone (DYCI) and, in the upper part of the formation, the Main (Borestone) Coal (BOR) and Stone Coal (STON) were of economic importance (Richey et al., 1925). There is little biostratigraphical or lithostratigraphical control of the thicker, but impersistent coals. All lie in the upper part of the formation, a little below the Index Limestone, but the variability of the sequence prevents the correlation of individual seams. Consequently many local names persist. South of the Inchgotrick Fault (Figure 3), the Limestone Coal Formation is thinner due to nondeposition and/or subsequent erosion. No biostratigraphical marker horizons have been proved. Although the coals worked at Killoch [NS 513 314], Langside [NS 524 330] and beside the Burn O' Need [NS 571 309] appear to lie at similar stratigraphical levels to those of the Stewarton-Darvel area, their actual position with respect to this thicker northern sequence cannot be determined.

The Upper Limestone Formation (ULGS) comprises the strata between the base of the Index Limestone (ILS) and the unconformable base of the overlying Passage Formation (Figure 6). In north Ayrshire, the sequence is condensed and reduced by lateArnsbergian erosion. In the KilmarnockNewmilns area, this erosion commonly truncates the sequence just above the Calmy Limestone, but ranges locally from above the Plean Limestone to above the Orchard Limestone (Figure 6). South of the Inchgotrick Fault, the sequence is further attenuated and reduced by erosion, and in some areas the unconformity lies just above the Index Limestone. The limestones, particularly the Calmy, have been exploited in some areas as a source of lime. The thick sandstone succession above the Index Limestone has been quarried locally for construction purposes.

The Passage Formation (PGP) (Figure 6) varies in thickness from approximately 25 to 110 m, due in part to thickness variations (0 to 90 m) within the Troon Volcanic Member (TVL), and also to changes that occur across the Inchgotrick Fault. The Ayrshire Bauxitic Clay Member (ABC), which is usually less than 10 m thick, has been of considerable economic importance (Merritt, 1985) and was formerly mined near Langside [NS 522 332]. Where the volcanic rocks are absent the Ayrshire Bauxitic Clay Member rests directly on the fluviatile sedimentary rocks.

The Coal Measures Group (Figure 1), (Figure 3), (Figure 6) crops out in two main areas. In the Kilmarnock Basin, lying between Kilmarnock and Darvel, it forms the eastern end of the Ayrshire Coalfield (Anderson, 1925). To the south of the Inchgotrick Fault, these strata form narrow outliers between Mid Hill [NS 585 305] and the western edge of the district marking the northern edge of the largely concealed Mauchline Coalfield (Eyles et al., 1930). As in earlier Carboniferous times there is evidence that deposition was influenced by the differential rates of subsidence across faults, particularly the Inchgotrick Fault.

The Lower Coal Measures (LCMS) (Figure 6) rest unconformably on the Clackmannan Group. They are present at depth beneath the Middle and Upper Coal Measures, but have a limited distribution in the Kilmarnock Basin and occur in a series of disjointed outcrops in the hanging wall of the Inchgotrick Fault. In the Mauchline Coalfield, they form a narrow belt between the Passage Formation and the Middle Coal Measures. In the Lower Coal Measures the seams are generally less than 30 cm thick, but in the Kilmamock Basin five seams have been of some economic importance; in ascending order they are the Kilwinning Main (KIM), Kilwinning Stone (KIST), Kilmarnock Ell (KELC), Ladyha' (LADC) and Shale (KSHC). The Plann Blackband Ironstone (FBI), which was mined locally, lies between the Kilmarnock Ell and the Ladyha' coals. In the Mauchline Coalfield an unnamed coal was mined near Langside [NS 516 331].

The Middle Coal Measures (MCMS) (Figure 6) usually have the Vanderbeckei Marine Band at the base, but in the Kilmarnock district this is absent, and the base of the measures is defined by the roof of the Shale Coal (Brand, 1977). Within the Kilmarnock Basin several thick (1 to 2 m) coals occur, the most important of which are, in ascending order, the Upper Wee (KUWC), Turf (KTU), Parrot (KPT), Linn Bed (LBCO), Whistler (WHC), Darroch (DAC), Major (KMA), Tourha' (KHA), McNaught (KMCC), Jewel (or Stranger) and Diamond coals. The Upper Wee, Turf and Parrot coals coalesce locally to form the Hurlford Main (or Big) Coal (HMC). Similarly the Darroch and Whistler may coalesce to form the Finnies Main (or Five Quarter) Coal (FMC). Many of these seams have been extensively worked in the Kilmarnock Basin. In the Mauchline Coalfield the main coals have been proved mainly by boreholes. Some are locally replaced by carbonate (white trap) associated with doleritic intrusions. The Middle Coal Measures are estimated to be around 200 m thick in the Kilmarnock Basin, thinning slightly into the Mauchline Coalfield.

The base of the Upper Coal Measures (UCMS) (Figure 6) is marked by the Aegiranum Marine Band. Within the Kilmarnock Basin only 60 to 100 m of the formation is preserved, but further south in the Mauchline Coalfield where it is overlain by younger Permo–Triassic strata the formation is approximately 440 m thick. The Upper Coal Measures were affected by the downward percolation of oxidising solutions from the Permo–Triassic desert land surface, removing most of the carbonaceous material and staining the rocks red brown.

Permo–Carboniferous intrusions

A narrow, east-west-trending set of doleritic dykes (D) in the Irvine valley are proved mainly in underground workings where they commonly coincide with minor faults. Apart from the thick analcime-bearing, olivine-dolerite (D^Te) sill at Craigie Hill [NS 423 327] most of the sills that postdate Strathclyde Group strata are thin, including other analcime-bearing varieties (D^Te). The Craigie Hill dolerite is also exceptional in that it is cut by thin monchiquite sills (Richey et al., 1930). Within the Irvine valley, and close to the southern edge of the district, there are several small basaltic agglomerate plugs (Z_v).

Permian

Permian rocks crop out along the southern and western edges of the district, where they form the northern edge of the extensive Mauchline Basin, which lies immediately to the south (Figure 3). The Mauchline Volcanic Formation (MVL) rests unconformably upon the Upper Coal Measures (Figure 1). It consists predominantly of alkali basalt lavas (Leake et al., 1997) with subsidiary basanitic and ankaramitic lavas and pyroclastic deposits. The overlying Mauchline Sandstone Formation (MSS) is dominated by red, aeolian, dune cross-bedded sandstones containing wind-rounded grains.

Palaeogene intrusions

Tholeiitic and analcime-bearing olivinedolerite dykes (aDA) transect the district from north-west to south-east. The tholefitic dykes, which are commonly quartz-bearing (qDT), are likely to belong to the Mull regional swarm or an Arran sub-swarm, whereas the analcime-bearing varieties are more likely to belong to the Arran sub-swarm or to be a continuation of the Jura and Islay swarms (Cameron and Stephenson, 1985). These Palaeogene dykes are generally wider and more continuous than those of Permo–Carboniferous age.

Structure

The Kilmarnock district lies within the south-western part of the Midland Valley of Scotland. This is a regional graben structure bounded by the Southern Upland Fault to the south-east and the Highland Boundary Fault to the north-west. The Midland Valley of Scotland is a distinct terrane which suffered Caledonian deformation during Ordovician and Silurian times but whose structural evolution continued into the Devonian and Carboniferous. The deposition of the Silurian strata (LlandoveryWenlock in age) occurred during the development of strike-slip basins formed during a period of sinistral transpression (Smith, 1995) at the end of the Caledonian orogeny. These strata were subsequently uplifted and eroded and form the block to the south of the Inchgotrick Fault, which was then unconformably overlain by the Siluro-Devonian Lanark Group. The unconformity is obscured by faulting in the Kilmarnock district except at Blackside [NS 583 295] where a small outlier of the basal conglomerate to the Lanark Group overlies the LlandoveryWenlock succession. Here, little angular difference is evident between the two successions indicating either a disconformable or a paraconformable relationship. Sinistral transpression in post-Wenlock to preSiluro-Devonian times produced a zone without significant deformation between the Inchgotrick (Figure 3) and the Kerse Loch faults, and therefore may explain the paraconformable relationship between the Silurian and Siluro-Devonian rocks. Both sequences were intruded by the Early Devonian Distinkhorn Plutonic Complex. The intrusive complex has a north-easterly alignment parallel to a major set of northeast trending faults such as the Strathaven Fault in the Hamilton district (Paterson et al., 1998). This north-easterly alignment suggests that there was a tectonic control on the emplacement of the intrusive complex. Subsequent movement on the Strathaven Fault continued into post-Westphalian times.

Tectonic models proposed to account for the Early Devonian magmatism include a destructive plate margin (Stephens and Halliday, 1984), an extensional, post-suturing crustal relaxation (Brown, 1979) or an entirely continental setting (Stillman and Francis, 1979). The calc-alkaline geochemistry of the Early Devonian lavas suggest a subductionzone related source for the magmas, but with a source interpreted to be deeper than the inferred position of the Iapetus suture. The magmas may, therefore, relate to the subduction of a former ocean between Avalonia and Armorica beneath the Laurentia-BalticaAvalonia continent (Soper et al., 1992).

A contact metamorphic aureole surrounds the Distinkhom Plutonic Complex (Richey et al., 1930) within the Llandovery-Wenlock and Siluro-Devonian rocks. Dykes, probably related to the Duneaton Volcanic Formation, are also thermally metamorphosed, which implies that the Distinkhorn intrusion postdated the Early Devonian volcanic activity. The Mid-Devonian (Acadian) deformation affected all these rocks, and is considered to be the result of northward movement of the Armorica–Iberia block against the Laurentia–Baltica–Eastern Avalonia continent (Soper et al., 1992). To the south-east of the district, Acadian compression resulted in folding, but within the district only tilting of blocks toward the north-west is evident south of the Inchgotrick Fault. These blocks formed an area of positive relief until early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) times when the Inverclyde Group was unconformably deposited. Renewed uplift (late Toumaisian to Visean) is demonstrated by the nondeposition of the Clyde Sandstone Formation, preserved elsewhere in the Midland Valley of Scotland, and attenuation of the Strathclyde Group. The maximum expression of this uplift, observed to the south of the Inchgotrick Fault [NS 530 345], resulted in the Namurian Clackmannan Group unconformably overlying the Tournaisian Kinnesswood Formation.

The North Ayrshire block (Read, 1988), which lies between the Duck Water and Inchgotrick faults, is mainly occupied by the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation. The formation is a pile of continental 'within plate' volcanic rocks, 500–900 m thick, overlain by the Kirkwood and Lawmuir formations. The base of the lava pile is not seen and the lavas may have erupted from a fissure system developed in a dextral transtensional system. The thick lava pile in the North Ayrshire block became a relatively positive area later in the Carboniferous as the overlying Lawmuir and Lower Limestone formations are thin or absent over the southern part of the block. The buoyancy of the block may have been an isostatic response to crustal thickening caused by the emplacement of high level magma.

The changes in thickness of the succeeding Clackmannan succession across major structures such as the Dusk Water (Hall, 1974), Annick Water, Inchgotrick and Clarkston faults are interpreted as evidence of syndepositional faulting. Complex, intermittent movements on the Inchgotrick Fault are described (Richey et al., 1930) from the Inchgotrick quarries [NS 413 337] where a sudden period of uplift on the southern side of the fault is indicated during accumulation of the Limestone Coal Formation (Pendleian). The Upper Limestone Formation is condensed and eroded with the thinning effect increasing markedly south of the Inchgotrick Fault.

The syndepositional faulting models in the Carboniferous include a component of dextral movement (Dewey, 1982; Read, 1988). An alternative model (Stedman, 1988), in which east-west tension (north-south compression) operated, could apply in this district but no north-south troughs can be demonstrated. It is concluded that a component of dextral strike slip was superimposed on dominant thermal subsidence of a basin in which earlier Caledonoid structures controlled the reactivation of fault blocks.

The Coal Measures were faulted and folded in post-Westphalian times (Hercynian). A major east-west-trending syncline affecting the Coal Measures is centred about Kilmarnock. This fold plunges gently to the west, but is bound to the south by the Inchgotrick Fault which threw down to the north during the Hercynian orogeny. Subsequently east-west, north-west- and east-south-east-trending normal faults displaced the Coal Measures within the syncline. After the Hercynian orogeny, in the southernmost part of the district, the Permo-Triassic Mauchline lavas erupted unconformably upon the Upper Coal Measures and together with the Mauchline sandstones form part of the Mauchline Basin. the noeth-west trend of this basin is related to the tensional regime operating at the time.

Concealed geology

The Bouger gravity map shows that the Kilmarnock district includes part of a regional Bouguer gravity anomaly high that occurs at the south-western end of the Midland Valley. The largest anomalies lie over the Dinantian (CPV) lavas south-east of Neilston. This regional high is associated with an inferred basement high bounded to the north-east, in the Hamilton district, by the Dechmont Fault. South of the Inchgotrick Fault the Bouguer gravity anomalies decrease to a local minimum over the Carboniferous and Permian strata in the Maiichline Basin. In the south-eastern corner of the district, the Distinkhom Complex and Lower Palaeozoic strata of the Lesmahgow Inlier are associated with a local gravity maximum, elongated in a north-east direction reflecting the probable influence of north-east-trending faults on pluton emplacement.

The total field aeromagnetic anomaly map for the Kilmarnock district shows a prominent series of linked positive intensity anomalies dose to the northern edge of the Dinantian (CPV) lavas. Analytical upward continuation of the magnetic anomaly field shows a pattern, which indicates that the Dinantian lavas are mainly confined to the area between the Inchgotrid and Clarkston faults.

Lineament analysis in images of the gravity and magnetic fields and their derivatives indicates several structural patterns across the western part of the Midland Valley. The Annick Water Fault has some expression in the gravity data across the main outcrop of lavas while the Lugton Water (Dusk Water) Fault can be seen in both gravity and magnetic data. Strong sets of north-west-trending magnetic features are associated with the Palaeogene dykes. Some gravity lineaments show a similar trend.

Regional full-crust 2D gravity and magnetic modelling of the data highlights the termination of the Dinantian lavas at the Inchgotrick Fault and the thinning of the lavas at the main north-east-trending faults. From the models it can be inferred that the gravity high south-east of Neilston is due to a basement feature, with local intrusions of basic magma associated with the main aeromagnetic anomaly over the Dinantian lavas.

Quaternary deposits

About 80 per cent of the district is covered by Quatemary deposits (drift) of Pleistocene (Devensian) and Holocene (Flandrian) age (Figure 7). Most deposits and landforms probably date from the last major glaciation of the Devensian Stage, which occurred during the Dimlington Stadial (26 000 to 13 000 ¹⁴C years BP). At its maximum, an ice sheet covered the entire region, and ice converged on the district from sources in the Highlands and Southern Uplands (Richey et al., 1930; Gordon and Sutherland, 1993).

Devensian

Glaciolacustrine deposits, in the form of laminated clays and silts, beneath till at the eastern end of the Irvine valley have been interpreted as proglacial lake deposits (Nickless et al., 1978). A former section in Cowdon Glen [NS 458 567] contains lacustrine deposits with an abundant 'temperate' flora and fauna preserved between two glacial tills (Geikie, 1869; Craig, 1874; Bennie, 1891; Dean, 1997). There is an unresolved dispute, however, as to whether the upper till is in situ (Geikie, 1869; Bennie, 1891) or slumped (Craig, 1874). If the upper till is accepted as in situ then the section provides compelling evidence of pre-Late Devensian interglacial and glacial deposits (Richey et al., 1930). The converse argument is that the upper slumped till (Sissons, 1964) overlies lacustrine deposits of probable Flandrian age.

Till is widespread across the district and was deposited during the Dimlington Stadial of the Late Devensian. Glacial striae, crags-and-tails and drumlins indicate that the dominant direction of ice movement within the district was predominantly towards the south-west, but varying locally towards the south-east. However, within the Irvine valley striae provide some evidence of encroachment from the west, which may represent an earlier phase of the glaciation (Richey et al., 1930). The till is typically a massive diamicton composed of boulders, cobbles and pebbles dispersed within a matrix of sandy silty clay. It is mainly very consolidated, dense and stiff. The colour of the matrix varies, depending upon that of the underlying bedrock and can be reddish brown where derived from Siluro–Devonian and Upper Coal Measures rocks, or brownish grey to black where derived from Lower and Middle Coal measures and Namurian strata. Thin beds and lenses of clayey pebbly sand occur locally within the till.

The overall direction of ice retreat was northwards, but in the Irvine valley it retreated westwards towards the sea. Glaciofluvial sand and gravel accumulated, as meltwater deposits, to the south of Eaglesham and the around Darvel. The Eaglesham deposits have been extensively worked for sand and gravel and the present topography bears little resemblance to its original form. A kettle-hole and a series of flat-topped kames stepping down to the north were recorded prior to excavation. These land forms are typical of an ice-contact environment and demonstrate northwards retreat of the ice (Richey et al., 1930). Palaeocurrent directions deduced from cross-bedding in the sands and gravels indicate that meltwaters flowed towards the north-east. A brown clay containing well-dispersed stones, possibly of proglacial lacustrine origin, underlies what remains of the sand and gravel. A beaded esker ridge extends from the west into the area of kame deposits along the valley of the Dunwan Burn [NS 5 4], suggesting that meltwater flowed towards the east, within, or parallel to, the ice-front. Evidence from outside the district suggests that ice remained in the Irvine valley during the early stages of deglaciation (Paterson et al., 1998). This ice prevented westward drainage from Darvel through the Loudoun Hill–Cairnsaigh Hill gap but, with continued deglaciation and retreat of ice down the Irvine valley, drainage into the upper readies of that valley commenced and the widespread terraced glaciofluvial deposits of Darvel accumulated (Nickless et al., 1978). On the south side of the Irvine valley, a number of steep-sided, north-easterly aligned ridges indicate successive ice-contact positions. Contemporaneous retreat of Clyde valley ice allowed the continued eastward drainage of meltwaters in the upper Avon valley east of the Loudoun Hill-Cairnsaigh Hill gap. Immediately west of Darvel there is a marked absence of glaciofluvial sand and gravel suggesting that the deglaciation of the lower Irvine valley was rapid.

Deposits of the Windermere Interstadial and Loch Lomond Stadial are not known within the district. A periglacial environment occurred during the Loch Lomond Stadial, and it is likely that solifluction and landslip deposits formed locally.

Flandrian

Apart from the human activities of man, the landscape of the Kilmarnock district appears to have been little modified during the 10 000 years since the start of the Flandrian Stage. The deposits laid down during this period consist mostly of alluvium and peat. The alluvium underlying floodplains and terraces associated with many of the streams and rivers is generally composed of varying proportions of silt, mud, gravel, sand, and in places, pockets of peat. It is commonly stratified with fine-grained overbank deposits overlying coarse-grained channel sands and gravels. Alluvial fan deposits occur locally. Most of the thick peat deposits accumulated in bogs in poorly drained hollows and in upland bedrock basins. In most cases these bogs are now artificially drained and are no longer accumulating. Commonly, scree lies at the foot of bedrock crags. Areas of made, worked and infilled ground are a legacy of the industrial development of the district, and in some cases are associated with mineral extraction. They include colliery tips, the infilling and reclamation of former quarries and pits, embankments for improved road or rail gradients, and areas where naturally low-lying and poorly drained areas have been built up to allow urban development. Although the material in the colliery tips usually reflects the mined material and their host rock, many of the older areas of made ground are composed of a variety of domestic and industrial refuse of an indeterminate nature.

Chapter 3 Applied geology

The district has a long history of mineral extraction and industrial development, although these activities have declined in recent years from their peak in the early part of the 20th century. However, it is essential for planning and development purposes to have knowledge of the mineral resource potential of the district, whether related to energy, minerals or groundwater. With continued urbanisation and development in the district, environmental geological information is also needed on issues which may affect planning, such as mineral exploitation, geohazards related to foundation conditions and slope stability, the extent of abandoned mineworkings, groundwater pollution, susceptibility to flooding, and the preservation of the natural geological heritage.

Energy resources

The thickest coal seams, in some cases exceeding 2 m, are in the Coal Measures. However, the workable reserves have been greatly depleted as a result of intensive mining during the last 150 years. However, in some places there may still be sufficient coal to justify opencast working. Peat, which may be used in horticulture as well as a fuel, occurs in extensive but generally thin deposits of hill peat in the upland areas that are underlain by Silurian, Devonian and Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation rocks. Basin peat deposits, such as the extensive Flow Moss [NS 510 455] are generally thicker but it is unlikely that they exceed 5 m in depth. Most of the peat deposits have been at least partly drained and many areas have been forested.

Bulk mineral resources

Sand and gravel resources are found mainly in the glaciofluvial ice-contact and terrace deposits in the upper valleys of the River Irvine and Ardoch Water. Deposits in the Ardoch Water valley, south of Eaglesham, were worked extensively but these workings are now abandoned and the landscape largely reinstated. Small, isolated areas of sand and gravel occur within the main valleys in other parts of the district. The lower part of the deposit in the valley of the Annick Water is now flooded by the Corsehouse Reservoir [NS 478 500].

Sandstone, which occurs throughout most of the bedrock sequence, has been exploited for building stone. Small quarries or 'borrow pits' have often provided sandstone for local building use. Larger scale quarrying took place at several stratigraphical horizons, most notably in the Cocklebee Sandstone (upper part of the Limestone Coal Formation) near Stewarton [NS 416 464]; [NS 413 466], in the Shillford Quarry Sandstone (lower part of the Upper Limestone Formation) near Uplawmoor [NS 444 559], and in the Dean Castle Quarry [NS 438 396] (Lower Coal Measures) and Holmquarry sandstones [NS 424 366] (Upper Coal Measures), both near Kilmarnock. These quarries have largely been reinstated and it is unlikely that the sandstones offer significant further resources. None of the sandstone beds in the district can be considered a likely source of silica sand (MacPherson, 1986b).

The Dinantian and Lower Devonian lavas and sills have been exploited for hard-rock aggregate from small quarries throughout the district to meet local building demands. There are larger quarries in trachybasalt lavas at Bannerbank [NS 495 524] and Pilmuir [NS 520 543] and in trachytic lavas at The Totherick [NS 445 511] and Craignaught [NS 444 516]. The inherent variability of the lavas tends to restrict their usefulness as a resource for modern hard-rock aggregates.

Primarily, they offer a resource for road bottoming and imported fill, or with judicious processing granular sub-base and single-sized aggregate for concreting (Merritt and Elliot, 1985). Apart from Bannerbank, these quarries are now inactive and Craignaught is being used as a waste disposal site. Although many of the doleritic dykes were formerly quarried for kerb stones, setts and rock for 'drystane dykes', they are generally too narrow to offer a significant modem resource. Many of the intrusive sills have also been worked locally but most are too thin for modern demands. The exception is the thick sill around Craigie Hill [NS 423 327], currently worked at Craigie Quarry [NS 423 328], which offers a significant resource of fresh hard rock. The large granitic intrusion of the Distinkhorn Complex is a potential hard-rock resource.

Many of the limestones of the Upper and Lower Limestone formations and some 'cornstones' in the Kinnesswood. Formation were quarried, and sporadically mined, for agricultural lime. Apart from the Blackhall (Dockra) Limestone, most are too thin to offer a modern resource. The Blackhall and Hurlet limestones form part of the North Ayrshire Limestone resource, one of the major limestone resources of central Scotland (MacPherson, 1986a). Limestone is presently quarried west of the district boundary.

Although the quality of the deposit is highly variable, the Ayrshire Bauxitic Clay Member contains some of the highest quality firedays in the UK and has been used both as a high-quality refractory and chemical feedstock in the production of aluminium sulphate (Merritt, 1985). Although formerly mined near Langside [NS 523 330], a significant resource remains within the district. Seatclays and seatrocks have also been mined sporadically in association with coal mining as a source of lower grade fireclay.

Brick-making clays, known locally as 'brickclays' or 'brickearths', are mainly interbedded with the glaciofluvial sand and gravel of the valley floors. A number of small clay pits were worked in the Irvine valley, the largest of which was at Gargieston Brick and Tile Works [NS 412 368] south-west of Kilmarnock. Colliery tips ('bings') that contain a high proportion of unburnt mudstone may provide suitable material for brick-making but their composition is highly variable. Mudstones offer more uniform material: possible horizons are the Kilbirnie Mudstone Member and the mudstones that overlie the Index, Orchard and Calmy limestones (Elliot, 1985).

Metalliferous mineral resources

Two haematite veins were formerly mined at Auchinlongford mine [NS 602 298] beside the Pennel Burn. Galena was reported to have been wrought beside the Wyndy Burn [NS 587 293] near Blacksidend Farm (Richey et al., 1930). The baryte veins at Myres Burn [NS 568 461] south of Eaglesham, detailed by Richey et al. (1930), were exploited recently. There is presently some interest in the Mauchline Volcanic and Mauchline Sandstone formations as a potential area of gold mineralisation (Leake et al., 1997).

Thin-bedded ironstone seams occur within the Coal Measures and Limestone Coal Formation, and were worked on a limited scale. Apart from sporadic workings associated with coal mining, the main area of extraction was in the Dalry ironstone seams of the Limestone Coal Formation near Uplawmoor. It is unlikely that any of the remaining ironstone deposits constitute a resource suitable for modern needs.

Groundwater

None of the bedrock units within the district offers a regionally significant aquifer, but they can and do provide important local supplies. Large quantities of mine water were pumped from various collieries. It is likely that the abandoned network of mines now contain a large quantity of water contaminated mainly by iron compounds. The superficial deposits, particularly the sands and gravels, may offer a shallow resource subject to seasonal recharge, but they are particularly susceptible to contamination by surface pollutants.

Environmental geology

There is an increasing demand to manage developments, which affect the visual impact of the landscape, and even initiate landscape improvements. In addition, there is a growing awareness of the value of the geological heritage in the rock outcrops and the natural landscape, not only to the geological community for scientific study but also as part of the tourist attractions of the district. These are set in the context of the continuing need to have available a land-bank to provide a supply of essential mineral resources and to provide land for housing, commercial, industrial, waste disposal and other developments, keeping in mind possible sterilisation of scarce resources.

There is little in the way of current mineral exploitation in the district. The main potential is with opencast coal, sand and gravel and hardrock. Privatisation of the coal industry has stimulated a rapidly growing quest for opencast coal. Exploitation of these resources may affect landscape, landforms and important geological exposures. It may also result in the provision of stabilised land for development with the removal of the threat of the collapse of 'stoop and room' mineworkings and also of adits and shafts. Co-existing mineral resources such as fireclay may be used to backfill the excavation or stockpiled for future use. In common with all quarrying activities, the opencasting of coal will affect both the surface and groundwater hydrogeology and in particular may be associated with the discharge of ferruginous and aluminous waters. Where the groundwater level is recovering following the cessation of dewatering associated with former deep coal mining, the interaction between opencasting and former deep mining has produced complex hydrogeological regimes.

Rock, till and sand and gravel generally provide sound foundation conditions below the top weathered zone. Engineering properties of rocks vary markedly depending on the rock type. Foundation conditions may be affected by the numerous faults, which cross the district causing sudden variations in the strength of the bedrock or by exaggerating the differential subsidence caused by the collapse of mine cavities. Exceptionally, the thickness of the superficial deposits can vary abruptly across bedrock faults. The weaker superficial deposits such as peat and the soft clays can pose a potential subsidence risk. They may also be unstable where they have been excavated. The localised occurrence of these softer beds within more granular alluvium may give rise to differential settlement. The uncontrolled infilling of pits, quarries and 'natural hollows' has left areas of variably consolidated made ground. All these deposits require careful site investigation.

Unless adequate stabilisation measures are taken prior to development, abandoned mineworkings, left by the past extraction of minerals, can cause subsidence. Much of the oldest mining, which often exploited the shallowest seams, took place prior to the systematic keeping of mine and borehole records. This legacy of undocumented shallow mining leaves a high potential for subsidence and sudden collapse. The opencast mining of shallow mined coal seams followed by the controlled infilling of the excavation can lead to more predictable ground conditions. In some places however, the old undocumented workings may underlie areas where urban development has already occurred. The main threat is from stoop-and-room workings because of pillar or roof failure; the problem is of most concern where old workings are within 30 m to 40 m of rockhead, unless the covering of Quaternary deposits are particularly deep and incompressible. Potential foundation problems are possible, but not exclusive, to anywhere within the outcrops of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures and the Limestone Coal Formation. Shafts and adits present localised hazards, which need attention.

Steep slopes, in the form of scarps and crags, are characteristic of many igneous rock outcrops. Many have scree deposits at their base indicating some risk from spalling rock fragments. The cyclical nature of much of the sedimentary bedrock sequence can place competent and incompetent beds in juxtaposition, and it can not be assumed that they will remain stable in steep-sided excavations or on natural slopes when disturbed by the activities of man. The stability of drift deposits on steep slopes may be affected by loading and/or excavation, making the slopes susceptible to minor landslip and debris flow.

River and stream flood-plains are all susceptible to periodic flooding, as demonstrated by the River Irvine and Kilmarnock Water which have flooded the low-lying urban developments built on flood-plains near their confluence. In the upland areas hollows and low-lying alluvial spreads are also periodically flooded by excess runoff.

The district is one of relatively low seismic risk and natural fault movements are rare. However, small magnitude earthquakes and ground vibrations caused by man's own activities may be a significant factor in planning the location of sensitive developments like high-technology factories.

Locally, the water supply can be affected by groundwater pollution, particularly where it is from shallow or superficial deposits. Rising ferruginous minewaters, following deep mine closure, can be a pollution threat to supplies. The outburst of ferruginous water from recently closed mines could result in polluted rivers and streams, with major deleterious ecological effects. Surface waters draining from bings can be rich in alumina. Pollution plumes from former and active landfills can cause local problems.

Landbanks for landfill tend to use former quarries and disused sand and gravel workings. Landraise may also be used, where natural hollows and valleys are infilled.

With regard to geological heritage, there are several Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) listed within the district. No Regionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS) sites have yet been defined. No local Quaternary sites were listed in the Geological Conservation Review of Gordon and Sutherland (1993). Geotourism is not significant in the district although there may be potential for educational information.

Information sources

Further geological information held by the British Geological Survey relevant to the Kilmarnock district is listed below. It includes published material in the form of maps, memoirs and reports and unpublished maps and reports. Also included are other sources of data held by BGS in a number of collections, including borehole records, mine plans, fossils, rock samples, rock thin sections, hydrogeological data and photographs.

Searches of indexes to some of the collections can be made on the Geoscience Index System in BGS libraries. This is a developing computer-based system, which carries out searches of indexes to collections and digital databases for specified geographical areas. It is based on a Geographical Information System (GIS) linked to a relational database management system. Results of the searches are displayed on maps on the screen. At the present time (2001) the datasets are limited and not all are complete. The indexes, which are available, are listed below.

• index of boreholes
• topographical backdrop based on 1:250 000 scale maps
• outlines of BGS maps at 1:50 000 and 1:10 000 scale and 1:10 560 scale County Series
• chronostratigraphical boundaries and areas from BGS 1:250 000 maps
• geochemical sample locations on land
• aeromagnetic and gravity data recording stations
• land survey records

Details of geological information available from the BGS can also be accessed on the Web at http:/ /www.bgs.ac.uk.

Books and reports

Memoirs, books, reports and papers relevant to the district are listed in the reference section. Some are either out of print or are not widely available, but may be consulted at BGS and other libraries.

More information on the general geology within and around the district can be found in memoirs (Richey et al., 1930; Paterson et al, 1990, 1998; Forsyth et al., 1996; Hall et al., 1998 and Monro, 1999), sheet descriptions (Smith, 1999) and reports (Goodlet, 1957; Browne, 1980; Forsyth, 1982; Paterson and Hall, 1986; Browne et al., 1996; MacPherson and Phillips, 1997). The district lies in the Midland Valley of Scotland in the British Regional Geology series of publications (Cameron and Stephenson, 1985).

Dean (1997) provides a full list of BGS Technical reports, and other important publications, on the biostratigraphy of the Kilmarnock district. A Technical Report by Phillips and MacPherson (1996) provides more details on the petrology and geochemistry of the volcanic rocks of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation.

Further information relevant to the applied geology of the district can be found in economic geology memoirs (Carruthers et al., 1917; Hinxman et al., 1920; MacGregor et al., 1920; Richey, et al., 1925; Anderson, 1925; Eyles et al., 1930; Simpson and MacGregor, 1932; Simpson and Richey, 1936; Robertson et al., 1949), and reports (Cameron et al., 1977; Elliot, 1985; MacPherson, 1986a, 1986b; Merritt, 1985; Merritt and Elliot, 1985; Leake et al., 1997). Hydrogeological information is available in the form of records of water wells for Scottish one-inch geological sheets 21 to 23 (Halpin, 1972), and see also Robins (1990). Geothermal energy assessment forms the basis of a report by Browne et al. (1985).

Maps

• Geology maps
• 1:625 000
• United Kingdom (North Sheet) Solid geology, 1979; Quaternary geology, 1977
• 1:250 000
• Sheet 55N 06W, Clyde Solid geology, 1985
• 1:63 360
• Sheet 22 Kilmarnock, Solid & Drift 1928
• Sheet 23 Hamilton, Solid & Drift 1929
• 1:50 000
• Sheet 14W Ayr, Solid, 1978; Drift, 1978
• Sheet 14E Cumnock, Solid, 1976; Drift, 1980
• Sheet 15W New Cumnock, Solid, 1999; Drift, 1999
• Sheet 22W Irvine, Solid, 1998; Drift, 1987
• Sheet 22E Kilmarnock, Solid, 1999; Solid & Drift, 1999
• Sheet 30W Greenock, Solid, 1990; Drift, 1989
• Sheet 30E Glasgow, Solid, 1993; Drift, 1993
• Sheet 31W Airdrie, Solid, 1992; Drift, 1992
• The Kilmarnock district is the eastern half of the area which was formerly covered by Sheet 22 (Kilmarnock) of the Geological Map of Scotland.
• 1:10 000 and 1:10 560
• Details of the original geological surveys are listed on editions of the 1:63 360 and 1:50 000 geological sheets. Copies of the fair-drawn maps of these earlier surveys may be consulted at the BGS Library, Edinburgh. The maps at six-inch or 1:10 000 scale covering wholly or in part in the 1:50 000 Series Sheet 22E Kilmarnock are listed below, together with the surveyors' initials and the dates of the survey. The surveyors were: M A E Browne, I B Cameron, P M Craig, J Dawson, J D Floyd, I H Forsyth, P M Halpin, G I Lumsden, A D McAdam, K A T MacPherson, S K Monro, W Mykura, I B Paterson, R A Smith, D Stephenson, P Stone. The maps are not published but are available for consultation in the BGS Library, Edinburgh, and also at Keyworth and the London Information Office, in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, London. Dyeline copies may be purchased from the Sales Desk.

• Geophysical maps
• 1:625 000
• United Kingdom (North Sheet) Aeromagnetic anomaly, 1972; Bouguer anomaly, 1981; Regional gravity 1981
• 1:250 000
• Clyde (Sheet 55N 06W) Aeromagnetic anomaly, 1980; Bouguer gravity anomaly, 1985
• 1:50 000
• Geophysical information maps; these are plot-on-demand maps which summarise graphically the publicly available geophysical information held for the sheet in "the BGS databases. Features include
• regional gravity data: Bouguer anomaly contours and location of observations
• regional aeromagnetic data: total field anomaly contours and location of digitised data points along flight lines
• gravity and magnetic fields plotted on the same base map at 1:50 000 scale to show correlation between anomalies
• separate colour contour plots of gravity and magnetic fields at 1:125 000 scale for easy visualisation of important anomalies
• location of local geophysical surveys
• location of public domain seismic reflection and refraction surveys
• location of deep boreholes and those with geophysical logs •
• Geochemical atlases
• 1:250 000
• Southern Scotland and part of Northern England, 1993. Point-source geochemical data processed to generate a smooth continuous surface presented as an atlas of small-scale colour-classified digital maps.
• Geochemical Survey Programme data are also available in other forms including hard copy and digital data.
• Hydrogeological maps
• 1:625 000
• Sheet 18 (Scotland) 1988.
• Groundwater vulnerability (Scotland) 1995.

Documentary collections

BGS holds a borehole record collection, which can be consulted at BGS, Edinburgh, where copies of most records may be purchased. For the Kilmarnock district the collection consists of the sites and logs of about 3000 boreholes. Index information, which includes site references, has been digitised. The logs are either hand-written or typed, and many of the older records are drillers' logs.

There is also a collection of site exploration reports carried out to investigate foundation conditions prior to construction. There is a digital index and the reports themselves are held on microfiche. For the district there are presently (2001) about 250 reports.

BGS maintains a collection of mine plans for underground workings for minerals other than coal and oilshale. Within the district, these are for workings of fireclay, (2 plans), limestone (4), bauxite (2), baryte (2), clayband ironstone (5), blackband ironstone (1) and haematite (4).

Records of water boreholes, stream sediment and other geochemical analyses, gravity and magnetic data, and seismicity are held at BGS, Edinburgh.

Material collections

Over 200 BGS photographs illustrating aspects of the geology of the district are deposited for reference in the libraries at BGS, Edinburgh, and BGS, Keyworth, and in the BGS Information Office, London. The photographs were taken at various times. They show various rocks and sediments exposed either naturally or in excavations, and also some general views. A list of titles can be supplied on request. The photographs can be supplied as black and white or colour prints and 2 X 2 colour transparencies, at a fixed tariff, from the Photographic Department, BGS, Edinburgh. Petrological collections for the district include more than 1000 hand specimens and thin sections. Most samples and thin sections (800–900) are of the igneous rocks. The sedimentary rocks are poorly represented (36). Information on databases of rock samples, thin sections and geochemical analyses (35) can be obtained from the Group Manager, Mineralogy and Petrology Section, BGS, Edinburgh.

There is a bore core collection consisting of samples collected from core taken from boreholes. At present (2001) there are approximately 900 samples (hand specimens) from over 40 bores which are registered in the borehole core collection.

Palaeontological collections have, been taken from surface and temporary exposures, and from boreholes throughout the district. The collections are working collections and are used for reference. They are not at present on a computer database. There are about 8850 macrofossils in the collection held at BGS, Edinburgh (Lanark Group, 16; Inverclyde Group, 161; Strathclyde Group, 6; Clackmannan Group, 5222; Coal Measures, 3437 and Quaternary 7). Further information on fossils from the Kilmarnock district can be obtained from the Curator, Palaeontology Unit, BGS, Edinburgh.

Coal abandonment plans are held by the Coal Authority, Mining Records Department, Bretby Business Park, Ashby Road, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs, DE15 OQD. Copies of coal mine abandonment plans on microfilm aperture cards are held by BGS, Murchison House, Edinburgh.

Sites of Special Scientific Interest are the responsibility of Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby, Redgorton, Perth, PHI 3EW.

References

Most of the references listed below are held in the libraries of the British Geological Survey at Keyworth (Nottingham) and Edinburgh. Copies of the references can be purchased subject to the current copyright legislation.

Anderson, E M. 1925. The economic geology of the Ayrshire coalfields, Area II, Kilmarnock Basin including Stevenston, Edlwinning and Irvine. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Bennie, J. 1891. On things new and old from the ancient lake of Cowdenglen, Renfrewshire. Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, Vol. 9, 213–215.

Brand, P J. 1977. The fauna and distribution of the Queenslie Marine Band (Westphalian) in Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 77/18.

Brown, G C. 1979. Geochemical and geophysical constraints on the origin and evolution of Caledonian granites. 645–651 in Caledonides of the British Isles reviewed. HARRIS, A L, HOLLAND, C H, and LEAKE, B E (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publication, No. 8.

Browne, M A E. 1980. The Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian) of the Firth of Tay, Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 80/9.

Browne, M A E, and 5 others. 1996. A lithostratigraphical framework for the Carboniferous rocks of the Midland Valley of Scotland. British Geological Survey Technical Report, WA/96/29.

Browne, M A E, Hargreaves, R L, and Smith, I F. 1985. The Upper Palaeozoic basins of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Investigation of the geothermal potential of the UK. (Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.)

Browne, M A E, Smith, R A, Aitken, A M, Barron, H F, and Carroll, S. In press. A review of the lithostratigraphical framework for the Devonian rocks of Scotland south of the Great Glen Fault. British Geological Survey Technical Report.

Cameron, I B, and Stephenson, D. 1985. British regional geology: the Midland Valley of Scotland. (3rd edition). (London: HMSO.)

Cameron, I B, Forsyth, I H, Hall, I H S, and Peacock, J D. 1977. Sand and gravel resources of the Strathclyde region of Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 77/8.

Carruthers, R G, and Dinham, C H. 1917. Economic geology of the Central Coalfield of Scotland, Area VIII, East Kilbride and Quarter. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Clayton, G, and 6 others. 1977. Carboniferous miospores of western Europe: illustration and zonation. Mededelingen Rijks Geol Dienst, Vol. 29, 1–71.

Craig, R. 1874. On the section on the Crofthead and Kilmarnock railway in Cowden Glen, Neilston, Renfrewshire, with remarks on the upper boulder clay. Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, Vol. 4, 17–32.

Dean, M T. 1997. Scottish Sheet 22E (Kilmarnock). A palaeontological and biostratigraphical summary. British Geological Survey Technical Report, Stratigraphy Series, WH97 /166R.

Dewey, J F. 1982. Plate tectonics and the evolution of the British Isles. journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 126, 465–499.

Elliot, R W. 1985. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: resources of clay and mudstone for brickmaking. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

Eyles, V A, Simpson, J B, and Macgregor, A G. 1930. The economic geology of the Ayrshire coalfields, Area III, Ayr, Prestwick, Mauchline, Cumnock and Muirkirlv Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Forsyth, I H. 1982. The stratigraphy of the Upper Limestone Group (El and E2 stages of the Namurian) in the Glasgow district. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 82/4.

Forsyth, I H, Hall, I H S, and McMillan, A A. 1996. Geology of the Airdrie district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 31W (Scotland).

Geikie, A, Geikie, J, Jack, R L, and Etheridge, J Junior. 1872. Explanation of Sheet 22: Ayrshire (north part) with parts of Renfrewshire and Lanarkshire. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Geikie, J. 1869. Additional note on the discovery of Bos primigenius in the lower boulder clay at Crofthead, near Glasgow. Geological Magazine, Vol. 6, 74.

Goodlet, G A. 1957. Lithological variation in the Lower Limestone Group of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, No. 12, 52–65.

Gordon, J E, and Sutherland, D G. 1993. Quaternary of Scotland. (Geological conservation review series 6). (London: Chapman and Hall.)

Hall, I H S, Browne, M A E, and Forsyth, I H. 1998. Geology of the Glasgow district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 30E (Scotland).

Hall, J. 1974. A seismic reflection survey of the Clyde Plateau Lavas in North Ayrshire and Renfrewshire. Scottish Journal of Geology, Vol. 9, 253–279.

Halpin, P M. 1972. Well Catalogue Series: Records of wells in areas of Scottish one-inch geological sheets North Arran and West Kilbride (21), Kilmarnock (22) and Hamilton (23). Water Supply Papers of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.

Hinxman, L W, Anderson, E M, and Carruthers, R G. 1920. The economic geology of the Central Coalfield of Scotland, Area IV, Paisley, Barrhead and Renfrew. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Leake, R C, Cameron, D G, Bland, B J, Styles, M T, and Fortey, N J. 1997. The potential for gold mineralisation in the British Permian and Triassic red beds and their contacts with underlying rocks. Mineral Reconnaissance Report, British Geological Survey, No. 144.

MacDonald, R. 1975. Petrochemistry of the early Carboniferous (Dinantian) lavas of Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology, Vol. 11, 269–314.

MacGregor, A G. 1928. The classification of Scottish Carboniferous olivine-basalts and mugearites. Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, Vol. 18, 324–360.

MacGregor, M, and Manson, W. 1935. Variations in the thickness of the Carboniferous Limestone Series of Scotland with special reference to the Limestone Coal Group. Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers, Vol. 89, 115–130.

MacGregor, M, LEE, G W and WILSON, G V. 1920. The iron ores of Scotland. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

MacPherson, K A T. 1986a. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: limestone resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MacPherson, K A T. 1986b. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: special sand resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MacPherson, K A T. 1992. Sedimentological and palaeoenvironmental study of the Top Hosie Limestone to Johnstone Shell Bed interval of the Carboniferous (Limestone Coal Formation) of the Central Scotland, Scotland. British Geological Survey Technical Report, WA /92/46.

MacPherson, K A T, Smith, R A, and Akhurst, M C. 2000. Geology of the Kilmarnock district. Sheet Description of the British Geological Survey. 1:50 000 Sheet 22E Kilmarnock (Scotland).

MacPherson, K A T and Phillips, E R. 1997. The geology of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation of the Kilmarnock district (Sheet 22E), central Scotland. British Geological Survey Technical Report, WA/97/88.

MacPherson, K A T, and Phillips, E R. 1998. A welded pyroclastic deposit within the Dinantian Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation, near Eaglesham, in the East Renfrewshire I fills of the Midland Valley. Scottish Journal of Geology, Vol. 34, 1–8.

Merritt, J W. 1985. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: fireday resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

Merritt, J W, and Elliot, R W. 1985. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: hard rock aggregate resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

Monro, S K. 1982. Sedimentation, stratigraphy and tectonics in the Dairy Basin, Ayrshire. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.

Monro, S K. 1999. The geology of the Irvine district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 22W and part of 21E (Scotland).

Nickless, E F P, Aitken, A M, and McMillan, A A. 1978. The sand and gravel resources of the country around Darvel, Strathclyde: description of parts of 1:25 000 sheets NS 53, 54, 63 and 64. Mineral Assessment Report Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 35.

Paterson, I B, and Hall, I H S. 1986. Lithostratigraphy of the late Devonian and early Carboniferous rocks in the Midland Valley of Scotland. Report of the British Geological Survey, Vol. 18, No. 3.

Paterson, I B, Hall, I H S, and Stephenson, D. 1990. Geology of the Greenock district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 30W and part of 29E (Scotland).

Paterson, I B, McAdam, A D, and MacPherson, K A T. 1998. Geology of the Hamilton district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 23W (Scotland).

Phillips, E, and MacPherson, K A T. 1996. Petrology, geochemistry and classification of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation, Kilmarnock District (Sheet 22), Midland Valley, Scotland. British Geological Survey Mineralogy and Petrology Technical Report, WC/96/24.

Read, W A. 1988. Controls on Silesian sedimentation in the Midland Valley of Scotland. 222–241 in Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex: the Upper Carboniferous of Northwest Europe. BESLY, B M and KELLING, G (editors). (Glasgow and London: Mackie).

Read, W A. 1989. The interplay of sedimentation, volcanicity and tectonics in the Passage Group (Arnsbergian, E, to Westphalian A) in the Midland Valley of Scotland. 143–152 in The role of tectonics in Devonian. and Carboniferous sedimentation in the British Isles. ARTHURTON, R J, GUITERIDGE, P, and NOLAN, S C (editors). Occasional Publication of the Yorkshire Geological Society, No. 6.

Richey, J E, Anderson, E M, and Macgregor, A G. 1930. The geology of north Ayrshire. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland, Sheet 22.

Richey, J E, Wilson, G V, and Anderson, E M. 1925. The economic geology of the Ayrshire coalfields, Area 1, Kilbirnie, Dairy and Kilmaurs. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Robertson, T, Simpson, J B, and Anderson, J G C. 1949. The limestones of Scotland. Special Report on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain, Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Vol. 35 (Scotland).

ROBINS, N S. 1990. Hydrogeology of Scotland. (London: HMSO for British Geological Survey.)

Simpson, J B, and Macgregor, A G. 1932. The economic geology of the Ayrshire coalfields, Area TV, Dailly, Patna, Rankinston, Dalmellington and New Cumnock. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Simpson, J B, and Richey, J E. 1936. The geology of the Sanquhar Coalfield and adjacent basin of Thornhill. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

Sissons, J B. 1964. The Perth Readvance in central Scotland. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. 79, Pt II, 151–163.

Smith, R A. 1995. The Siluro-Devonian evolution of the southern Midland Valley of Scotland. Geological Magazine, Vol. 132, 530–513.

Smith, R A. 1999. Geology of the New Cumnock district - a brief explanation of the geological map. Sheet Explanation of the British Geological Survey. 1:50 000 Sheet 15W New Cumnock (Scotland).

Soper, N J, Strachan, R A, Holdsworth, R E, Gayer, R A, and Greiling, R O. 1992. Sinistral transpression and the Silurian closure of Iapetus. Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 149, 871–880.

Stephens, W E, and Halliday, A N. 1984. Geochemical contrasts between late Caledonian granitoid plutons of northern, central and southern Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences, Vol. 75, 259–273.

Stillman, C J, and Francis, E H. 1979. Caledonide volcanism in Britain and Ireland. 557–577 in The Caledonides of the British Isles reviewed. Harris, A L, Holland, C H and Leake, B E (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 8.

Thirlwall, M F. 1988. Geochronology of late Caledonian magmatism in northern Britain. Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 145, 951–967.

Wilson, R B. 1967. A study of some Namurian marine faunas of central Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 66, 445–490.

Wilson, R B. 1989. A study of the Dinantian marine macrofossils of central Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences, Vol. 80, 91–126.

Index to the 1:50 000 Series maps of the British Geological Survey

The map below shows the sheet boundaries and numbers of the 1:50 000 Series geological maps. The maps am numbered in three sequences, covering England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland.The west and east halves of most Scottish 1,50 000 maps am published separately. Almost all BGS maps em available Bat or folded and cased.

The area described in this sheet explanation is indicated by a solid block.

(Index map)

British geological maps can be obtained from sales desks in the Survey's principal offices, through the BGS London Information Office at the Natural History Museum Earth Galleries, and from BGSapproved stockists and agents.

Northern Ireland maps can be obtained from the Geological Survey of Northern Ireland.

Figures and plates

Figures

(Figure 1) Geological succession in the Kilmarnock district.

(Figure 2) Summary of the Silurian and Siluro-Devonian rocks of the district.

(Figure 3) Solid geological map of the district.

(Figure 4) Summary of the Carboniferous rocks of the district; the Inverclyde and Strathclyde groups.

(Figure 5) Geological map of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation.

(Figure 6) Summary of the Carboniferous rocks of the district: the Clackmannan and Coal Measures groups.

(Figure 7) Drift geological map of the Kilmarnock district.

Plates

(Plate 1) Chaotic lahar deposits interbedded with laminated overbank and channel-edge deposits forming part of a sedimentary apron around a major trachytic volcanic centre, Gowk Stane Member, Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation [NS 5814 4390] (D6106).

(Plate 2) Volcanic 'bombs' in bedded trachytic rocks of pyroclastic origin within the Gowk Stane Member of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation [NS 579 479] (D1564). Bedding is distorted due to the impact of the large 'bomb'.

(Plate 3) Thick, poorly bedded, volcaniclastic conglomerates form a channel that has cut more fine-grained lahar and/or overbank deposits, Gawk Stane Member, Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation [NS 5839 4291] (D6109).

(Plate 4) Olivine-phyric alkali-basalt plug that intrudes the Moyne Moor and Beith lavas, near Neilston [NS 4748 5579] (D6102). Both plug and host lavas are component parts of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation.

(Front cover) Dean Castle, Kilmarnock [NS 4370 3942] is constructed mainly from sandstone quarried from the Lower Coal Measures in the nearby Dean Castle Quarry (D6083).

(Rear cover)

(Index map) Index to the 1:50 000 Series maps of the British Geological Survey

Figures

(Figure 2) Summary of the Silurian and Siluro-Devonian rocks of the district

See (Figure 2) for the original representation of this figure