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Geology of the Kirkcaldy district — brief explanation of the geological map Sheet 40E Kirkcaldy

M A E Browne and D G Woodhall

Bibliographic reference: Brown, M A E, and Woodhall, D G. 1999. Geology of the Kirkcaldy district — a brief explanation of the geological map. Sheet Explanation of the British Geological Survey. 1:50 000 Sheet 40E Kirkcaldy (Scotland).

Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey

© NERC 2003 All rights reserved

Copyright in materials derived from the British Geological Survey's work is owned by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and/or the authority that commissioned the work. You may not copy or adapt this publication without first obtaining NERC permission. Contact the BGS Intellectual Property Rights Manager, British Geological Survey, Keyworth. You may quote extracts of a reasonable length without prior permission, provided a full acknowledgement is given of the source of the extract.

(Front cover) Cover photograph: Stratheden and the north escarpment of the Lomond Hills showing crags formed by the quartz-dolerite sill and the volcanic rocks of East Lomond (D 06114).

(Rear cover)

Notes

The word 'district' refers to the area of Sheet 40E Kirkcaldy. National grid references lie within the 100 km square NO and NT and are prefixed accordingly. Symbols in round brackets after lithostratigraphical names are the same as those used on the 1: 50 000 geological map.

Acknowledgements

This heet Explanation was compiled by D G Woodhall, Divisional Editor, Scotland and Northern England Unit, Edinburgh, and is based solely on the approved version of the Sheet Description for the Kirkcaldy district written by M A E Browne and D G Woodhall. Full acknowledgements are to be found within the Sheet Description.

The National Grid and other Ordnance Survey data are used with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationary Office. © Ordnance Survey licence number GD272191/1999

Geology of the Kirkcaldy district (summary from the rear cover)

(Rear cover)

This Sheet Explanation provides the first general account since 1902 of the geology of the area which includes Glenrothes and the port of Kirkcaldy and extends from the North Fife Hills southwards to the hills around Burtisland and from the coast westwards to Loch Gelly. It includes most of the Lomond Hills Regional Park. This part of Fife is scenically attractive and contains many geological features of considerable interest and importance in understanding the geological development of the eastern half of the Midland Valley of Scotland. The central part is rich in industrial legacy because of coal, ironstone, limestone, sandstone and mudstone (for brick) of Carboniferous age which supported a thriving mining industry until recently. Old mineworkings and their related subsidence problems are contemporary issues in planning and development. Opencast coal mining continues and quarrying of Carboniferous basaltic lava flows, basalt vent plugs and olivine–dolerite sills for hardrock aggregate continues. The early Permian Midland Valley Quartz-dolerite Sill is also a prime aggregate. Quaternary deposits, laid down during and after the last glaciation, have furnished sand and gravel resoures which are still being extracted today. However, clay and silt from the Late Devensian raised marine deposits that was used for brick and tile manufacture is no longer worked. The northern part of the district used to be of some importance for hard rock (Lower Devonian lava flows) and building stone (Upper Devonian sandstones) but now contributes groundwater to the regional supply from boreholes in the Knox Pulpit Formation (Upper Devonian). This area contains the only designated nitrate vulnerable zone in Scotland. An outline of the recently updated lithostratigraphy of the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of the area is given.

Chapter 1 Introduction

This Sheet Explanation provides a summary of the district covered by the geological 1:50 000 Series Sheet 40E Kirkcaldy, published in solid and solid and drift editions in 1999 (Figure 1). A more comprehensive description can be found in the Sheet Description (Browne and Woodhall, 1999), and detailed information can be found in individual Technical Reports (see information sources for details).

The Kirkcaldy district lies entirely within the Midland Valley of Scotland, and is made up of extensive, fertile lowland areas, underlain by Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks (Figure 2), along with less fertile upland areas, notably the Lomond and North Fife hills, underlain by igneous rocks. All these rocks formed at various times between about 415 and 280 million years ago. The earliest geological event recognised within the district is early Devonian volcanism, which took place along the southern margin of the north-east-trending Strathmore basin. The volcanic rocks (Ochil Volcanic Formation) were then subjected to early to middle Devonian deformation (end-Caledonian), uplift and erosion. These events are now marked by a regional unconformity at the base of late Devonian sandstones deposited by fluvial (Burnside and Glenvale formations) and aeolian (Knox Pulpit Formation) processes under semi-arid conditions. These conditions persisted into the earliest part of the Carboniferous (Tournaisian and earliest Viséan) when sandstones and mudstones, with carbonate beds and nodules (Kinnesswood, Ballagan and Clyde Sandstone formations) were deposited on alluvial plains and adjacent coastal flats. A change to more humid tropical climatic conditions took place during the early Viséan, and these conditions prevailed until late in the Carboniferous when they became semi-arid again (Upper Coal Measures).

Extensional tectonics influenced sedimentation throughout the Carboniferous. Uplift and tilting of the Lomond Hills block took place during the early Carboniferous and was followed by the development of partly fault-controlled, synsedimentary, folded basins, such as the Westfield basin. Cyclic sequences of mudstone, siltstone and sandstone were deposited under fluviodeltaic and lacustrine conditions and characterise the Strathclyde (Viséan), Clackmannan (mainly Namurian) and Coal Measures (Westphalian) groups. Many of these sequences include a basal marine limestone and/or mudstone, and have a coal seam at the top. Lacustrine conditions were prevalent during deposition of the Strathclyde Group (for example, Sandy Craig Formation) and are marked by deposits of ostracodal/algal limestone (e.g. Burdiehouse Limestone), and oil shale (for example, Fife Dunnet Shale). Marine incursions during deposition of the Lower and Upper Limestone formations (Viséan and Namurian) extended across the whole of the Midland Valley of Scotland, whereas during deposition of the Limestone Coal Formation (Namurian) and Coal Measures (Westphalian) they were fewer in number and mostly less extensive. Tectonic activity during deposition of the Coal Measures is indicated where these strata thicken into the central part of the Leven Syncline. Offshore, there was active uplift (basin inversion) during deposition of the Upper Coal Measures; this caused thinning of the strata to the north and east, and a major intraformational unconformity.

Carboniferous and early Permian basaltic magmatism gave rise to various volcanic (lavas and/or volcaniclastic rocks) and intrusive igneous rocks, which occur in many parts of the Carboniferous succession. Volcanic vents are marked by intrusive breccias, and locally by basalt plugs. Most intrusive igneous rocks occur as olivine- or teschenitic-dolerite, or quartz-dolerite sills and some dykes.

A major unconformity exists between the youngest bedrock (Coal Measures) and widespread drift deposits of Quaternary age. From the Permian onwards, Scotland remained mostly as a positive landmass and consequently any Permo-Triassic to Cretaceous sedimentary rocks that formed have been eroded away. The landscape of the district may have been fashioned by prolonged erosion during the Cainozoic prior to a series of Quaternary glaciations (ice ages). The last glaciation removed most deposits of preceding glaciations and intervening warmer periods (interglacials), but deposited till and glaciofluvial sand and gravel. The postglacial period (latest Devensian and Holocene) has been characterised by the accumulation of marine, littoral, fluvial and lacustrine clays, silts, sands and gravels, along with that of peat and present day beach, river and lake deposits.

History of research

The first edition of Sheet 40 (Kinross) is dated 1867. Geikie's memoir (1900) is probably the most comprehensive account of this district (see also Geikie, 1902). The Fife Coalfield memoirs (Knox, 1954; Francis, 1961) provide a detailed account of the coal-bearing strata. Offshore borings for coal have been described by Ewing and Francis (1960a;b) and Browne (1998). The lithostratigraphy for this district follows that of Armstrong and Paterson (1970), Chisholm and Dean (1974) and Browne et al. (1996). Sedimentological studies of Tournaisian and Viséan rocks include Loftus and Greensmith (1988), Maddox (1988), Turner (1991) and Pickard (1992; 1994). Studies of the volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks of the district include Allen (1924), Thirlwall (1981; 1983), Francis (1982), Smedley (1986), Walker and Francis (1987) and Francis and Walker (1987). The effects of thermal metamorphism were described by Murchison and Raymond (1989). Important palaeontological works include Neves et al. (1973) on the palynological zonation of the Lower Carboniferous. Macgregor (1996) contains relevant geological field excursion itineraries, and also includes an outline of the Quaternary history of Fife. The latter is based partly on detailed studies on late Devensian shorelines, like that of Cullingford and Smith (1966), and reviews such as Sutherland (1984). The limestone resources of Fife were described by Muir et al. (1956), and those of sand and gravel by Browne (1977) and Aitken and Ross (1982). The geothermal prospects were reported by Browne, Hargreaves and Smith (1985) and Browne et al. (1987). The environmental geology of parts of the area are described by Browne et al. (1985), McAdam et al. (1987) and Nickless (1982). Cameron and Stephenson (1985) provides an overview of the geology of the Midland Valley of Scotland of which Fife is a part.

Chapter 2 Geological description

Devonian

The Lower Devonian Arbuthnott Group, in the Kirkcaldy district, comprises only the Ochil Volcanic Formation (OVF) (Figure 3). This forms the oldest strata in the district, and is confined to outcrops in the north. On the basis of geochemical data, Thirlwall (1983 and references therein) interpreted the volcanic rocks as being subduction related. However, according to Phillips et al. (1998), the magma was derived from subduction-contaminated mantle, and, after subsequent crustal contamination, the volcanism interrupted Siluro-Devonian basin development, which was controlled by sinistral strike-slip movement.

The Upper Devonian Stratheden Group rests unconformably on the Arbuthnott Group (Figure 3). The unconformity also marks the base of the Burnside Formation (BRN), which has a basal volcaniclastic conglomerate made up of clasts derived from the Ochil Volcanic Formation. Palaeocurrent flow is predominantly eastwards in this and the overlying Glenvale Formation (GEF) (Figure 3). The sandstones of the Knox Pulpit Formation (KPF) are characterised by the presence of 'pin stripe' lamination of aeolian origin, and the rarity of pebbles is another distinctive feature. Well-rounded 'millet seed' grains are common in coarser laminae. Palaeocurrent flow is bimodal suggesting an alternation of eastwards- and westwards-flowing currents, a feature which is locally confirmed by the presence of the herringbone pattern of opposed foresets.

Carboniferous

Inverclyde Group

The Inverclyde Group (Figure 4) rests conformably on the upper Devonian Stratheden Group. The basal Kinnesswood Formation (KNW) varies in thickness from 20 to 130 m as a result of intra-Carboniferous erosion, which was most intense in the northern part of the Lomond Hills. The transitional base of the formation is taken between strata containing cornstones and the aeolian sandstones of the underlying Knox Pulpit Formation. The cornstones, which characterise the Kinnesswood Formation, represent palaeosols that developed on floodplains in a semi-arid climate. Although the overlying Ballagan Formation (BGN) attains a maximum thickness of at least 160 m, it has been completely removed by intra-Carboniferous erosion in the northern part of the Lomond Hills. Deposition in a semi-arid environment is indicated by occurrences of gypsum, some anhydrite, pseudomorphs after halite, evidence of brecciation during diagenesis, and reddening of the strata. However, there is a restricted fauna characterised by the quasimarine bivalve Modiolus latus, and numerous ostracods.

Strathclyde Group

The Strathclyde Group (Figure 4) represents a lithological change from the cornstone- and cementstone-bearing strata of the Inverclyde Group to a seatrock/coal-bearing sequence in which volcanic rocks are locally common. The Pittenweem Formation (PMB) is the lowest formation at outcrop, and is only present west of Burntisland. However, the underlying Anstruther Formation is known from borehole evidence (Milton of Balgonie No. 1 Oilwell). Marine faunas from at least two marine bands in the Pittenweem Formation consist of lingulid brachiopods, Modiolus sp, and nautiloids (Browne and Woodhall, 1999). Intervening strata have yielded restricted nonmarine faunas dominated by the bivalve Naiadites cf. obesus. The Sandy Craig Formation (SCB) also crops out around Buntisland where it is interbedded with and partly replaced by the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation. The restricted non-marine faunas are dominated by the bivalve Curvirimula. The lacustrine Burdiehouse Limestone (Loftus and Greensmith, 1988) is up to 7 m thick, fine grained, grey or cream coloured, algal and ostracodal; it was mined at Nine Lums, Newbigging. The Fife Dunnet Shale, above, is up to 2 m thick, and was worked as an oil shale at Binnend. The Kingswood Limestone, as seen in the Pettycur Caravan Park [NT 255 866], contains an exceptionally well preserved Asbian flora (Scott et al., 1986). The Pathhead Formation (PDB) (Figure 5) crops out north and east of Burntisland, where it conformably overlies the Sandy Craig Formation, and is interbedded with the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation. There are numerous outcrops north of the East Ochil Fault zone where it rests unconformably on the Inverclyde Group (Ballagan Formation with local overstep onto the Kinnesswood Formation). Nonmarine faunas are dominated by Curvirimula sp., but there are more marine mudstones and limestones, dominated by brachiopods and molluscs, than in the underlying formations (for example, West Braes, Lower and Upper Ardross, Pathhead marine bands, Ardross and St Monan's White limestones).

Bathgate Group

The Bathgate Group (Browne et al., 1996) in the Kirkcaldy district is represented by the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation (KNV) (Woodhall, 1998) (Figure 4). A few of the subaerially erupted lavas (Plate 1) that dominate the formation pass laterally into sub-aqueously formed volcaniclastic breccia (hyaloclastite; ZBha), which contains some pillow lava. Interbedded sedimentary strata near the top of the formation include the St Monans White Limestone (SMW) (Pathhead Formation).

Clackmannan Group

The Clackmannan Group (Figure 6), (Figure 7), (Figure 8), (Figure 9), is characterised by strongly cyclical sequences of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, limestone, coal and seatrock, the proportions differing in its component formations. The base of the group is that of the Lower Limestone Formation (LLGS), the most continuous outcrop of which is from the coast at Seafield Tower (Plate 2) around the Burntisland anticline to Loch Gelly. Other outcrops are around the Lomond Hills, Cults and Kirkforthar. Important limestone horizons (for example, Hurlet, Inchinnan, Blackhall, Hosie; (Plate 3)) and associated marine bands are shown in (Figure 7). The most continuous outcrop of the Limestone Coal Formation (LSC) is from the coast at Kirkcaldy around the Burntisland Anticline to Loch Gelly. Isolated outcrops also occur at Cadham–Balbirnie, Rameldry–Star and Clatto, all north of the East Ochil Fault. The formation includes beds of mudstone, ironstone and cannel containing large numbers of shells (coquinas) of Lingula or of the non-marine bivalves Naiadites and Curvirimula. However, because of the form of preservation (impressions), these shells do not form conspicuous mussel-bands like those of the Coal Measures. Marine shells are present in some beds, with two major developments represented by the Johnstone Shell Bed and Black Metals Marine Band. Volcaniclastic rocks, including tuffs, occur, for example, around the Jersey Coals and also between the Cardenden Smithy Coal and the Index Limestone horizon in the Kirkcaldy area (Figure 7). The Upper Limestone Formation (ULGS) crops out extensively on the western side of the Balgonie–Thornton Syncline and from the coast at the northern end of Kirkcaldy around the Burntisland Anticline westwards to the Westfield Basin area. It also crops out north of the Durie Fault. At the base of the formation, the Index Limestone is more usually represented by marine mudstone with the Huntershill Limestone in some places being developed separately as a thin bed. Other named units are the Lyoncross, Orchard, Calmy, Plean and Castlecary limestones, all marine (Figure 8). Thin coal seams are present throughout the succession and around Carhurlie, Kilmux, Sinclairtown and Westfield are thick enough (up to 60 cm) to have been mined. Around Balgrummo and Letham, tuffs occur between the Calmy Limestone and the horizon of the Index Limestone. They are also found in and around the Westfield basin where Francis (in Craig, 1991) records five flows of pillow lava associated with hyaloclastites and tuffs. The Passage Formation (PGP) (Figure 8) forms a continuous outcrop along the western side of the Thornton–Balgonie Syncline. It also crops out in the core of the Earl's Seat Anticline, between the Leven and Durie faults around Kennoway and Treaton, at Balgrummo to the north of the Durie Fault, and in the Westfield basin. At least five marine horizons, three in the lower half of the formation, have been identified from subsurface information. However, these cannot be correlated with the Marine Band groups of the Central Coalfield. The only significant development of coal seams, outside the Westfield basin, is in the Thornton–Dysart area. In the Westfield basin, the sandstones above the Castlecary Limestone are overlain by highly decomposed olivine-basalt lava, and grey and green mottled clayrock. Above these, the Boglochty Beds include many coal seams, which are interbedded with mostly rooted mudstones that contain marine fossils at least eight horizons. The extreme variation in thickness of these beds appears to be related to north-north-east-trending folding that was contemporaneous with deposition of the strata. Thinning north-eastwards towards the East Ochil Fault is also suspected (Brand et al., 1980).

Coal Measures

The Coal Measures (Figure 9), (Figure 10) crop out mainly in the south-east of the district, but in the west there is a small crop in the centre of the Westfield basin. The rocks are generally grey in colour but are extensively reddened towards the top. The Lower Dysart Coal (Plate 4) defines the base of the Lower Coal Measures (LCMS), the whole of which is replaced offshore in the former Wellesley Colliery by volcanic strata, mainly tuff, which constitute the Wellesley Volcanic Member. In the Middle Coal Measures (MCMS) the Chemiss Coal, 1.5 m to more than 4 m thick, has been extensively mined except in the Barnslee-Treaton basin, and was worked as the Number Two Mine Coal in the Westfield basin. Seams above the Barncraig Coal are usually less than 1.4 m thick and absent in places. The mudstone roofs of the Barncraig and Wall coals are usually rich in nonmarine bivalves. Below the Lyon Coal, near the top of the formation, are the newly named Chemiss Den and Wellesley marine bands (Figure 9). The former was previously correlated with the Aegeranum (Skipsey's) Marine Band (Francis and Ewing, 1962). Volcaniclastic rocks, including tuff are present in the offshore Wellesley Colliery workings to just below the Wellesley Marine Band. The Upper Coal Measures (UCMS) are usually reddish brown and purplish grey in colour due to oxidation of originally grey strata beneath the Permian unconformity, but some reddening may be primary, related to periods of lowered water table during deposition. The basal Buckhaven Planolites Band consists of reddened mudstone containing foraminifera and bivalves (?Nuculid). Offshore under the Firth of Forth, the formation is widespread, and seismic interpretation suggests that the post-Barncraig Coal sequence in the deepest part of the Leven Syncline could be as much as 1500 m thick. However, a marked thinning, and an intraformational unconformity, is apparent from seismic records across the eastern limb of the fold. The top of the formation is eroded, at an unconformity of regional extent.

Intrusive igneous rocks

Vent breccias (ZB ) occur in the Burntisland area at Dalachy [NT 202 858], Kilmundy Hill [NT 218 865] and more extensively at The Binn [NT 235 868]. The breccia is composed mainly of subangular to subrounded basalt fragments mostly less than 8 cm across but with some up to 1 m. Limestone fragments are locally conspicuous in the Binn and Kilmundy Hill vent breccias, and the former also contains scattered clasts of siltstone/fine-grained sandstone which are highly irregular and lobate in form suggesting that they were incorporated into the breccia while only partly lithified. A vertical contact with bedded sandstones of the Sandy Craig Formation is locally exposed on the western side of the Kilmundy Hill vent [NT 2188 8644]. The vent breccias are interpreted as the products of highly explosive phreatomagmatic volcanism. However, large masses of basalt in The Binn vent are probably intrusive plugs/dykes and were possibly emplaced during a late phase of effusive basaltic volcanism that took place once water was prevented from gaining access to the magma in the vent. The timing of this volcanism relative to that which produced the basalt lavas of the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation is uncertain. There are several other small vents with breccias scattered across the remainder of the Kirkcaldy district. These include two larger ones at East Lomond Hill [NO 245 060] and Langside Quarry [NO 345 035], both of which have basalt vent plugs. At Langside the contact between the vent rocks and the sedimentary country rocks is visible. On Green Hill [NO 22 07] there is a basaltic plug preserved without an associated vent breccia.

Dolerite (DD) sills intruded into the Sandy Craig, Pittenweem and basal part of the Kinghorn Volcanic formations at Burntisland are probably penecontemporaneous with the magmatism that produced the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation. Thin sills of calcified dolerite sills are still evident in the main face of the disused Dodhead Quarry located in Burntisland Golf Course [NT 2481 8699] to [NT 2485 8689] (Geikie, 1900, figs 16 to 17). Other olivine dolerite and teschenite (Dte) sills are intruded into strata above the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation in various parts of the district, and are a product of multiphase mid-Carboniferous alkali basaltic magmatism. No feeder dykes have been found, there is some evidence that the magma was supplied through 'volcanic pipes' (Francis and Walker, 1987). From borehole evidence it is apparent that maximum sill thicknesses (about 190 m) occur in the deepest parts of sedimentary basins, and that the sills become transgressive across faults (Francis and Walker, 1987). The extent of thermal metamorphism of the country rocks is restricted due to intrusion into wet, unlithified sediments (Murchison and Raymond, 1989). The widespread Midland Valley Quartz-dolerite (qD) Sill crops out extensively within the district and was emplaced during the early Permian (Francis, 1982). The magma was apparently supplied by feeder dykes and the sill is also thickest (over 165 m) in the deepest parts of sedimentary basins. In this case thermal metamorphism of the country rocks is more extensive because of intrusion into lithified sediments.

Structure

The Kirkcaldy district is centrally situated in the eastern part of the Midland Valley of Scotland, a graben which is believed to have developed in the early Devonian (Bluck, 1978) in a zone of crustal weakness of Caledonide inheritance. However, more recently it is considered to have been initiated in the late Silurian during end-Caldeonian terrane accretion (Phillips et al., 1998). The structures within the Midland Valley were imposed during the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian, as a result of east–west extension, north–south extension and north-west–south-east extension with right-lateral strike slip (for example, Stedman, 1988; Read, 1988).

The most important fault zone in the district is the East Ochil Fault (Figure 1). This extends east-north-eastwards across the middle of the district, sharing this Caledonoid trend with the Ceres, Dura Den and Fernie faults to the north, and has a possible maximum vertical throw of up to 1300 m at Westfield. In the Westfield Opencast Site, the fault zone is steeply dipping and of normal throw with a shatter zone up to 15 m wide. The observed maximum throw postdates the intrusion of a sill of early Permian age north of the fault.

The structure of the district, south of the Ochil Fault, is dominated by the Burntisland Anticline and Leven Syncline, both of which have near north–south axial plane traces. Against the East Ochil Fault, the anticline becomes tight with vertical dips in the Markinch area. The Leven Syncline has been traced onshore and offshore in the Durie, Leven and Wellesley collieries. Its axis has also been traced on offshore commercial seismic data. Steep dips are a feature of its western flank against the Burntisland Anticline in the offshore area south of Kirkcaldy. Less continuous folds, such as the Earl's Seat Anticline, along with the Thornton–Balgonie and the complex Bowhill synclines, appear to be related to late Namurian to early Permian strike-slip tectonics associated with the East Ochil Fault zone.

Concealed geology

The Leven Syncline forms the dominant structural feature within the offshore part of the Kirkcaldy district (Figure 1). It can be traced northwards from the Midlothian Coalfield to Fife, where it is flanked by the Burntisland Anticline to the west and by a combination of the Lundin Anticline (Forsyth and Chisholm, 1977, fig. 26) and the offshore Mid Forth High to the east. The axial trace of the syncline is offset by later movement along east-north-east-trending faults. The Leven Syncline probably contains more than 6 km of Carboniferous sedimentary rocks (i.e. 3 km of Silesian and at least 3.3 km of Dinantian), with Westphalian rocks cropping out close to or at the sea bed. In the onshore part of the district, the Earl's Seat Anticline, along with the Thornton–Balgonie Syncline to the west, is well defined on seismic data. There are also three commercial wells located within the Earl's Seat Anticline, Milton of Balgonie 1, 2 and 3. In general, the thickness of the Carboniferous succession appears to increase towards the east of the area.

Bouguer gravity anomalies show minimum values of about −8 mGal a few kilometres offshore of Methil and reflect the influence of relatively low density Namurian and Westphalian strata to depths of about 2 km. Maximum values around Kinghorn and Burntisland are associated with the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation and can be related to a basement high. The aeromagnetic anomalies over the Carboniferous strata largely reflect the distribution of Dinantian volcanic rocks and the dolerite intrusions.

Quaternary

Most of the Quaternary deposits and features in the Kirkcaldy district are less than 30 000 years old (Late Devensian to Flandrian). However, there are deposits of sand and gravel preserved in elongate glacially eroded bedrock hollows associated with the Leven and Ore rivers that predate the main Late-Devensian glaciation of 27 000 years ago (Dimlington Stadial). The ice sheet of this glaciation generally moved eastwards across the district and eroded the landscape producing striated bedrock surfaces, rôche moutonées and crag and tail features (e.g. East Lomond and Langside hills). It deposited a substantial spread of glacial till, which was locally sculpted into drumlins (for example, Kennoway to Pilmuir). When the ice sheet retreated westwards across the district about 14 000 years ago, substantial volumes of glaciofluvial sand and gravel were deposited by the meltwaters. These also cut meltwater channnels like Collessie Den and those of the Pitlessie–Cults area. Ice-contact deposits, forming mounds, eskers (ridges) and terraces with kettle-holes, are common in Stratheden, and in the Glenrothes to Windygates area.

The interplay of the local isostatic recovery (marked by crustal uplift following retreat of the ice sheet) with world sea level changes caused fluctuations in relative sea level during the Late Devensian (less than 14 000 to 10 000 years ago) and Flandrian (10 000 years ago to present). In the Kirkcaldy district, these fluctuations are marked by raised beach features and by raised marine deposits. The Late Devensian marine deposits consist of colour (shades of pink and grey) laminated red clay, containing an arctic macrofauna and microfauna, and are found in Stratheden (Browne et al., 1981) and locally around Leven and Kirkcaldy up to levels of between 30 and 40 m above OD. The most important of the raised beaches is the Main Perth Shoreline, one fragment of which is at about 21 m above OD in Burntisland. Other raised beaches, and related fluvioglacial terraces composed mainly of sand and gravel, such as those around Leven and Kirkcaldy (Cullingford and Smith, 1966, fig. 3), are contemporaneous with the Windermere Interstadial. They provide evidence that local relative sea level fell from about 22 m above OD to present, or below, before glaciers reappeared in central Scotland during the Loch Lomond Stadial. Other evidence of falling base levels include Late Devensian alluvial terraces in Stratheden. During the Windermere Interstadial, the local landscape was largely devoid of trees and generally tundra-like with lakes of significant size including Rossie Loch [NO 26 12] and Boglochty [NT 21 98]. The initiation of postglacial sedimentation is dated at 13 636 ± 130 years BP (SRR 391) from sediments retrieved from the large kettlehole at Rossie Loch [NO 26 12]. A radiocarbon date on the base of a peat bed in the alluvium of Stratheden at Darnoe [NO 260 092] was 11 862 ± 100 years BP.

No Loch Lomond Stadial ice accumulated within the district, but there is evidence of frozen ground including frost-wedge casts, for example at Cults, along with materials moved by freeze-thaw action and by rockfall (head and scree) as in the Lomond Hills.

About 10 000 years ago the climate became significantly warmer and consequently all glacial ice and frozen ground disappeared. The main Flandrian marine transgression started about 8000 years ago, and local relative sea level again rose above present and formed the Main Postglacial Shoreline with deposits of shelly sand and gravel forming the beach platform. The largest area of Flandrian raised beach deposits is at Leven with narrow strips in places between here and Burntisland, their height in relation to OD being between 8 and 12 m. The Main Postglacial Shoreline formed about 6500 years ago. The presentday beach deposits are generally of sand and gravel with some storm beach ridges. The lithology of the gravel has been much influenced by colliery spoil that has been tipped on to former sand links (e.g. Wellesley Colliery at Buckhaven and Innerleven Links) and foreshores. Coastal erosion is currently destroying some of this man-made land. Present-day dune sands on Leven Links are largely stabilised, but wind-blown sand occurs to high levels in the higher ground immediately inland at Burntisland and Pettycur.

Chapter 3 Applied geology

The district has had a long history of mineral extraction and industrial development, but this has declined significantly in recent years. It is, however, essential for planning and development purposes to have knowledge of the mineral resource potential of the district. Information is also needed about other geological conditions which may affect this planning, such as geohazards related to ground conditions and stability, groundwater pollution, coastal erosion or the preservation of the natural geological heritage.

Mineral resources

With the abandonment of the Frances Colliery in 1996, all deep mining of coal ceased in the district. Current technology, is such that future potential in the Coal Measures is probably under the sea in the former Michael, Frances and Seafield collieries. The remaining potential is in the Limestone Coal Formation, both undersea and onshore. Some resources remain under the Leven Syncline east of the Rothes Colliery. Further resources lie east of the undersea workings in Seafield Colliery. However, since the privatisation of the coal industry, there has been active interest in opencast coal in the district, in particular the Coal Measures coals (especially the 3 to 12 m thick Dysart Main and Lower Dysart coals) as well as seams in the Limestone Coal Formation. In the unusually coal-rich Passage Formation of the Westfield Basin [NT 210 980], opencast operations have been continuous since 1960 and farther eastward extension to complete extraction in this deposit is possible together with the overlying Coal Measures.

Oil shale

Oil shale was formerly mined at the Burntisland Oil-shale Works (Carruthers et al., 1927) where the Fife Dunnet Shale in the Sandy Craig Formation (Strathclyde Group) was the only bed thick enough (up to 2 m) to be worked. The Westfield Shale in the Passage Formation was also exploited in the Westfield basin where it was of similar thickness.

The Earl's Seat Anticline at Milton of Balgonie has been the subject of test drilling for hydrocarbons on more than one occasion. Department of Trade prospecting licences have been awarded to various companies to carry out seismic surveys across much of the central part of the district. Waxy paraffins were discovered during drilling in 1984–1988 at Milton of Balgonie but so far the find remains undeveloped. Methane gas was generally absent in deep coal mines in Fife, but there may be a potential for coalbed methane in deeply buried coals in the Strathclyde Group, which are the subject of a prospecting licence in the Pilmuir area.

Fife was the key area in an investigation of the low enthalpy geothermal energy in the Midland Valley of Scotland (Browne et al., 1985; 1987). The Glenrothes Borehole (Brereton et al., 1988) was sunk to determine the heat flow and temperature gradient where a potentially suitable aquifer existed, in this case the Knox Pulpit Formation. It was concluded that the unit may yield an economic flow rate for a low enthalpy scheme (BGS, 1988).

The only extensive areas of peat are at Star Moss, Markinch and Woodend, Auchterderran.

The main occurences of sand and gravel are in the Markinch–Glenrothes and Auchtermuchty–Ladybank areas (Aitken and Ross, 1982). There are active (1997) quarries at Lomond by Leslie, The Wilderness at Ladybank, Mount Castle near Bow of Fife, and at Melville Lower Wood and Melville Gates near Collessie. The active pits are all excavated in Late Devensian glacial meltwater deposits, either moundy or terraced spreads. Other types of deposits have been worked, such as blown sand at Pettycur, for bottle glass (MacPherson, 1986b).

Various Carboniferous sandstones have been quarried for building stone. Those from the Strathclyde Group are generally considered superior to those from in the Clackmannan Group and Coal Measures. There is one still periodically active quarry at Newbigging [21 85] in a yellow sandstone within the Sandy Craig Formation.

Hardrock

Hardrock for roadstone, concrete and over-size stone has been extracted from numerous quarries in igneous rocks in the district. The Ochil and Kinghorn volcanic formations, along with vent breccias, and olivine- and quartz-dolerite sills (and dykes) have all been exploited for this purpose (Merritt and Elliot, 1984). Many of these quarries are now disused, but there are active quarries (1998) at Langside (almost exhausted after 90 years) in a basaltic vent intrusion, at Craigs near Auchterderran in olivine-dolerite, and at Orrock in the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation.

Limestone

Limestone beds of workable thickness (3 to 6 m) in the district are restricted to the Sandy Craig (Burdiehouse), Pathhead (St Monans White), Lower Limestone (Hurlet and Blackhall) and Upper Limestone (Castlecary) formations. The last working operation, currently mothballed, was a small opencast venture adjacent to the most recently abandoned mine adits at Cults. The lime from these workings used to be used to dampen down dust in coal mines, in calcsilicate bricks and for agriculture.

Ochre

Ochre (hydrated iron oxide) has been quarried at Letham Glen, Leven and mined in the Leven and Durie collieries from the Middle Coal Measures (from above the Pilkembare Coal to the top of the formation) and from the Upper Coal Measures.

Fireclay

Fireclay occurs throughout most of the Carboniferous sequence (except the Inverclyde Group) and was worked in the past from the Coal Measures. Those worked include the seatclays beneath the Barncraig and Dysart Main coals, and one associated with the Glassee Coal in the Limestone Coal Formation at Dundonald Colliery (Merritt, 1985).

Common shale for brick

Common shale for brick occurs in most of the Carboniferous succession, except in the basal part of the Kinnesswood Formation. There is (1997) one active quarry at Brotus, Cults [NO 350 085], and the raw silty mudstone is taken by road for processing at Methil. The 20 to 30 m-thick mudstone roof of the Blackhall Limestone in the Lower Limestone Formation is the source rock. There are probably other plentiful potential resources, not only in this formation but also in the Coal Measures, Upper Limestone Formation (associated with the Calmy and Orchard limestones) and Limestone Coal Formation (for example, Black Metals Marine Band) (Elliot, 1985).

Brickclay

Glacial till has been worked for brickclay only at Gallatown and Invertiel quarries, near Kirkcaldy. Late Devensian glaciomarine silty clays were worked on a small scale at Cuttlehill, Leven and Linktown, near Kirkcaldy, where they were over 6 m thick, and at Cupar and Dunshelt in Stratheden.

Bings (tips) of colliery waste

Bings (tips) of colliery waste have potential for use as bulk fill, for provision of mudstone for brick-making or for the recovery of their coal content. Many bings in the district have been landscaped and much of the material redistributed and used in land reclamation and in industrial redevelopment.

A supposedly argentiferous, north-east-trending galena vein was discovered in 1783, and wrought behind the farmhouse at Hanging Myre, south of East Lomond Hill. Most metalliferous, conductivity anomalies in the district are ascribed to contamination caused by former mining and industrial activities (related to copper and lead). However, high silver values (greater than 1.5 ppm) were recorded in the Lomond Hills.

Past mining of blackband and clayband ironstone is known in the district, with the most extensive being the claybands in the mudstone roof of the Lower Dysart Coal. The Lochgelly Blackband Ironstone was worked briefly at Kilmux [NO 36 04].

Water supply

The main public water supply is from surface water captured in upland dams in the Ochil Hills outwith Fife. It is augmented by groundwater taken from boreholes in the Upper Devonian aquifer, underlying the valley of the River Eden, which is one of the more highly productive areas in Scotland for groundwater. The aquifer is sandstone of the Knox Pulpit Formation (Foster et al., 1976). Although intergranular flow is significant, most groundwater moves via fissures in the rock. There are currently (1997) three public supply boreholes in use at Falkland [NO 257 072], Kettlebridge [NO 311 077] and Balmalcolm [NO 322 086] which contribute over 8000 m3/d to the supply network. In addition, private boreholes abstract water from the aquifer, but mainly for irrigation in the summer months. Groundwater quality in the Devonian aquifer is generally good, although concentrations of nitrate have been steadily increasing over the past 20 years. The Devonian aquifer is considered to be highly vulnerable to pollution from surface sources. The Lower Devonian volcanic rocks to the north of the Eden valley are generally weakly permeable, although there are a small number of boreholes up to 30 m depth that supply good-quality water for domestic use.

Carboniferous aquifers are less productive than the Devonian owing to more complex geology and poorer porosity and permeability values. The most productive aquifer is sandstone in the top part of the Upper Limestone Formation and the overlying Passage Formation.

Geology and planning

Geological assessments of large parts of the district, for the purpose of planning for land-use development, were carried out by BGS (Browne et al., 1985; McAdam et al., 1987). These provided details of the resources available and the main types of geological hazards likely to be encountered. There is an increasing demand to manage developments that affect the visual impact of the landscape, and even initiate landscape improvements. In addition, there is a growing awareness of the value of the geological heritage in the rock outcrops and the natural landscape, not only to the geological community for scientific study but also as part of the tourist attractions of the district. These are set in the context of the continuing need to have available a landbank to provide a supply of essential mineral resources and to provide land for housing, commercial, industrial, waste disposal and other developments, keeping in mind possible sterilisation of scarce resources.

The most important minerals currently exploited in the district are opencast coal, sand and gravel, and hardrock. Exploitation of these resources may affect landscape, landforms and important geological exposures. Opencast coal working can also be a method of stabilising land for development as this removes the threat of the collapse of 'stoop and room' mineworkings and also of adits and shafts. In common with all quarrying activities, the opencasting of coal will affect both the surface and groundwater hydrogeology, and in particular may be associated with the discharge of ferruginous and aluminous waters. The interaction between opencasting and former deep mining has produced complex hydrogeological regimes. In Fife, the landfilling of sand and gravel workings is common practice, although restoration to form new lochs (for example, Birnie and Geddon Lochs) as local nature reserves or fishing ponds has recently occurred.

Rock, till and sand and gravel generally provide good foundation conditions below the top weathered zone. Faulting can produce zones of broken rock or can juxtapose rocks of greatly varying geotechnical competence. Engineering properties of rocks vary markedly depending on the rock type. Poor foundation conditions can be caused by superficial deposits at the surface such as peat, clay and silt, alluvial deposits in general, and landfill. Foundation conditions may also be affected by variably compressible buried superficial deposits like peat and soft clay and by liquefaction of silt and fine sand. All these deposits require careful site investigation.

Abandoned mineworkings, mainly for coal, but also for oil shale, limestone and ironstone, present a hazard where collapse of workings may propagate to the surface. The problem is of most concern where old workings are within 30 to 40 m of rockhead, unless the covering Quaternary deposits are particularly deep and incompressible. Potential foundation problems are possible, but not exclusive to, anywhere within the outcrops of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures and the Limestone Coal Formation. Shafts and adits present localised hazards which need attention.

The stability of drift deposits on steep slopes may be affected by loading and/or excavation making them susceptible to minor landslip and debris flow. Similarly, the stability of bedrock in cliffs and steepsided excavations may depend on its resistance to weathering and the presence of joints, faults and inclined bedding planes. Movement on such planar features may give rise to rockfalls, along with landslip, as in the Lomond Hills.

Coastal erosion in the district is significant between Buckhaven and Dysart now that the supply of colliery waste to shoreline bings has ceased. Recession is associated with minor landslips and rockfalls. Inland and coastal flooding may be enhanced by any rise in sea level associated with global warming.

The possibility of small magnitude earthquakes and ground vibrations caused by man's own activities may be a significant factor in planning the location of sensitive developments like high technology factories.

Localised groundwater pollution occurs where there is abstraction for private supplies, mainly for farming, from Upper Devonian and Carboniferous sandstones and Quaternary sand and gravel. In these, high nitrate levels are a concern, and are commonly the product of wartime ploughing of permanent grasslands. Locally the water supply is affected by nitrate pollution (MacDonald, 1993), as in the Kettlebridge Borehole, and a nitrate sensitive zone is being established to protect it. Rising ferruginous minewaters, following deep mine closure (Younger, 1995; Younger et al., 1995) is thought to be a pollution threat to supplies. Pollution plumes from former and active landfills are local problems because, until recently, such sites were run on an unlined, 'dilute and disperse' basis. The Knox Pulpit Formation aquifer may be at risk in this way where overlying former sand and gravel workings are being infilled. The Balmalcolm Borehole (MacDonald, 1993), in particular, has suffered from this problem, and it became the first groundwater source in Scotland to have a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone defined around it. The Devonian aquifer is considered to be highly vulnerable to pollution from surface sources, the contamination by gasworks liquors of a small part of the aquifer at Orkie [NO 302 073] being an example.

Landbanks for landfill tend to be orientated towards former quarries and disused or active sand and gravel workings. However, landraise is also practised notably at Balbie, Kilrie, Auchtertool and Burntisland (aluminium ore waste), where natural hollows and valleys are being partly infilled.

Geological heritage

Geotourism is not significant in the district, with geological information in wallboards limited to the East Lomond Quarry within the Lomond Hills Regional Park and at Pettycur Bay. There is considerable potential for similar educational information especially along the Fife Coastal Path where much of the foreshore exposure (and small inland areas) between Burntisland and Dysart is covered by geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Invertiel Quarry in the Blackhall Limestone is the only other SSSI. No Regionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS) has yet been defined, although the esker at Collessie and the adjacent landforms and landscape of the Collessie Gap provide examples of classic glacigenic features.

Information sources

Further geological information held by the British Geological Survey relevant to the Kirkcaldy district is listed below. Indexes to some of the map and data collections can be made on the Geoscience Data Index in BGS libraries. This is a developing computerised database, using maps displayed on screen. The data consists of a topographical backdrop based on 1:250 000 scale maps, an index of boreholes, outlines of BGS maps at 1:50 000 and 1:10 000 scale including 1:10 560 scale County Series, chronostratigraphical boundaries and areas from BGS 1:250 000 maps, onshore geochemical sample locations, aeromagnetic and gravity data recording stations, and land survey records. For details of geological information available from the British Geological Survey see the current Catalogue of Geological Maps and Books or access the BGS Web Home Page at http://www.bgs.ac.uk.

Maps

• 1:625 000
• United Kingdom (North Sheet) Solid geology, 1979; Quaternary geology, 1977
• 1:250 000
• Tay-Forth Sheet 56N 04W, Solid geology, 1986
• 1:63 360
• Sheet 32 Edinburgh, Drift, 1967
• Sheet 40 Kinross, Solid, 1969; Drift, 1969
• Sheet 41 North Berwick, Solid, 1970; Drift, 1981
• 1:50 000
• Sheet 32W Livingston, Solid, 1977
• Sheet 32E Edinburgh, Solid, 1977
• Sheet 33W Haddington, Solid, 1983; Drift, 1978
• Sheet 48W Perth, Solid, 1983; Drift, 1985
• Sheet 48E Cupar, Solid, 1982; Drift, 1982
• Sheet 49 Arbroath, Solid, 1980; Drift, 1981

The Kirkcaldy district is the western half of the the area which was formerly covered by Sheet 40 Kinross of the Geological Map of Scotland.

1:10 000 and 1:10 560

Maps at six-inch or 1:10 000 scale covering the 1:50 000 Series Sheet 40E are listed below, together with the surveyors' initials and the dates of the survey. The surveyors were: A M Aitken, M A E Browne, J I Chisholm, I H Forsyth, I H S Hall, A D McAdam, D L Ross, D G Woodhall. The maps are not published but are available for consultation in BGS libraries, and in the BGS London Information Office the Natural History Museum. Dyeline copies may be purchased from the Sales Desk. Copies of fair-drawn maps of earlier geological surveys may be consulted at the BGS Library, Edinburgh.

• Geophysical maps
• 1:1 500 000
• Colour shaded relief gravity anomaly map of Britain, Ireland and adjacent areas, 1997 Colour shaded relief anomaly map of Britain, Ireland and adjacent areas, 1998
• 1:250 000
• Tay-Forth Sheet 56N 04W, Aeromagnetic anomaly, 1981; Bouguer gravity anomaly, 1979
• 1:50 000
• Geophysical information maps; these are plot-on-demand maps which summarise graphically the publicly available geophysical information held for the sheet in the BGS databases. Features include:
• regional gravity data: Bouguer anomaly contours and location of observations
• regional aeromagnetic data: total field anomaly contours and location of digitised data points along flight lines
• gravity and magnetic fields plotted on the same base map at 1:50 000 scale to show correlation between anomalies
• separate colour contour plots of gravity and magnetic fields at 1:125 000 scale for easy visualisation of important anomalies
• location of local geophysical surveys
• location of public domain seismic reflection and refraction surveys, and the location of deep boreholes which have geophysical logs
• Geochemical atlases
• 1:250 000
• Southern Scotland and part of Northern England, 1993. Point-source geochemical data processed to generate a smooth continuous surface presented as an atlas of small-scale colour-classified digital maps. Geochemical Survey Programme data are also available in other forms including hard copy and digital data.
• Hydrogeological maps
• 1:625 000
• Sheet 18 (Scotland) 1988.
• Groundwater vulnerability (Scotland), 1995.

Books

The various books, memoirs, reports and papers relevant to the Kirkcaldy district are listed in the reference section. British Geological Survey Technical Reports and other reports are not widely available, but may be purchased from the British Geological Survey or consulted at the British Geological Survey and other libraries.

The district lies within the Midland Valley areas of the British Regional Geology series of publications (Cameron and Stephenson, 1985), which are sold in British Geological Survey and some other bookshops. Other aspects of the geology within and adjacent to the district can be found in Memoirs of the British Geological Survey (Geikie, 1900; 1902; Mitchell and Mykura, 1962; Forsyth and Chisholm, 1977; Forsyth et al., 1996; Cameron et al., 1998), Reports (Brand et al., 1980; Paterson et al., 1981; Paterson and Brand, 1984; Paterson and Hall, 1986; Browne et al., 1984; Browne and McMillan, 1989), Bulletins (Ewing and Francis, 1960a; b; MacGregor, 1960) Sheet Descriptions (Browne and Woodhall, 1999) and Technical Reports (Browne et al., 1996; Woodhall, 1998). Some biostratigraphy can be found in reports (Brand, 1977), but there is also a collection of internal biostratigraphical reports.

Economic information on coal, ironstone and limestone can be found in British Geological Survey Economic Geology Memoirs (MacGregor et al., 1920; Carruthers et al., 1927; Knox, 1954; Muir and Hardie 1956; Francis, 1961). Information on bulk minerals is located in reports (Browne, 1977; Aitken and Ross, 1982; Merritt and Elliot, 1984; Elliot, 1985; Merritt, 1985; MacPherson, 1986a; 1986b). Hydrogeological information appears in reports (Foster et al., 1976; MacDonald, 1993) and records of water wells in the district were published in Water Supply Papers (1967) for 1:50 000 Series Geological Sheets 40, 41, 48 and 49 inclusive. General hydrogeological information can be found in Robbins (1990). Geophysical information for the Midland Valley as a whole appears in a Technical Report (Rollin, 1987). The Geothermal Potential of the district is assessed in a series of reports (Browne, Hargreaves and Smith, 1985; Browne et al., 1987; Brereton et al., 1988; British Geological Survey, 1988). There are a number of Land Use Planning reports (Nickless, 1982; Browne et al., 1985; McAdam et al., 1987).

Documentary collections

BGS holds collections of records of bore-holes which can be consulted at BGS, Edinburgh, where copies of most records may be purchased. For the Kirkcaldy district the collection consists of the sites and logs of about 3300 boreholes. Index information, which includes site references, for these boreholes has been digitised. The logs are either hand-written or typed and many of the older records are drillers' logs.

There is a collection of site exploration reports carried out to investigate foundation conditions prior to construction. There is a digital index and the reports themselves are held on microfiche. For the district there are presently (1999) about 350 reports.

BGS maintains a collection of mine plans of underground workings for minerals other than coal. Plans held which fall within the district include those oil shale (2), limestone (1) and blackband ironstone (2).

There are records of hydrogeological (water boreholes), geochemical (stream-sediment and other analyses), gravity and magnetic, and seismic (earthquake) data held at BGS, Edinburgh.

Material collections

Some 189 photographs illustrating aspects of the geology of the district are deposited for reference in the libraries at BGS, Edinburgh, Keyworth and in the London Information Office. The photographs were taken at various times over the last century. The photographs depict details of the various rocks and sediments exposed either naturally or in excavations and also some general views. A list of titles can be supplied on request. The photographs can be supplied as black and white or colour prints and 35 mm colour transparencies, at a fixed tariff, from the Photographic Department, BGS, Edinburgh.

There is a petrological collection for the district consist of about 300 hand specimens and thin sections. Most samples and thin sections are of the igneous rocks in the district. The sedimentary rocks are poorly represented. Information on databases of rock samples, thin sections and geochemical analyses can be obtained from the Mineralogy and Petrology Section, BGS, Edinburgh.

Samples have been collected from core taken from boreholes. At present (1999) there are over 1634 samples (hand specimens) from over 93 boreholes which are registered in the borehole collection.

There is an extensive palaeontological collection from surface and temporary exposures, and from boreholes throughout the district. The collection is a working collection and is used for reference. It consists of 20 549 macrofossils held at BGS Edinburgh (Devonian, 30; Inverclyde Group, 212; Strathclyde Group, 3747; Clackmannan Group, 12 747; Coal Measures, 3771; Quaternary, 42). Databases of fossil samples from the district are obtainable from the Curator, Palaeontology Section, BGS Edinburgh.

Other relevant collections

Coal abandonment plans are held by The Coal Authority, Mining Records Department, Bretby Business Park, Ashby Road, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs, DE15 0QD. Seismic Survey data for the district is held by The Coal Authority, and by Conoco Ltd. Sites of Special Scientific Interest are the responsibility of Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby Redgorton, Perth, PH1 3EW.

References

Most of the references listed below are held in the Library of the British Geological Survey at Murchison House, Edinburgh and Keyworth, Nottingham. Copies of the references can be purchased subject to the current copyright legislation.

AITKEN, A M, and ROSS, D L. 1982. The sand and gravel resources of the country around Glenrothes, Fife Region: description of 1:25 000 sheet NO 20 and parts of NO 21, 30 and 31. Mineral Assessment Report Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 101.

ALLAN, D A. 1924. The igneous geology of the Burntisland district. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 53, 479–480.

ARMSTRONG, M, and PATERSON, I B. 1970. The Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Strathmore region. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 70/12.

BLUCK, B J. 1978. Sedimentation in a late orogenic basin: the Old Red Sandstone of the Midland Valley of Scotland. 249–278 in Crustal evolution in northwestern Britain and adjacent regions. BOWES, D R, and LEAKE, BE (editors). Special Issue of the Geological Journal, No. 10.

BRAND, P J. 1977. The fauna and distribution of the Queenslie Marine Band (Westphalian) in Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 79/18.

BRAND, P J, ARMSTRONG, M, and WILSON, R B. 1980. The Carboniferous strata at the Westfield Opencast Site, Fife, Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 79/11.

BRERETON, R, and 6 others. 1988. Glenrothes Borehole: Geological Well Completion Report. Investigation of the Geothermal Potential of the U K, British Geological Survey.

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1988. Geothermal energy in the United Kingdom: review of the British Geological Survey's Programme 1984–1987. Investigation of the Geothermal Potential of the U.K, British Geological Survey.

BROWNE, M A E. 1977. Sand and gravel resources of the Fife Region, Scotland. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 77/5.

BROWNE, M A E. 1998. The Middle and Lower Coal Measures in the Sea-Lab Nos 1 and 2 Boreholes, Fife. British Geological Survey Technical Reportt, WA/98/44.

BROWNE, M A E, and 5 others. 1996. A lithostratigraphical framework for the Carboniferous rocks of the Midland Valley of Scotland. British Geological Survey Technical Report, WA/96/29/R.

BROWNE, M A E, GRAHAM, D K, and GREGORY, DM. 1984. Quaternary estuarine deposits in the Grangemouth area, Scotland. Report of the British Geological Survey, Vol. 16, No. 3.

BROWNE, M A E, HARGREAVES, R L, and SMITH, IF. 1985. The Upper Palaeozoic basins of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Investigation of the Geothermal Potential of the UK.. (Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.)

BROWNE, M A E, and MCMILLAN, AA. 1989. Quaternary geology of the Clyde Valley. British Geological Survey Research Report, SA/89/1.

BROWNE, M A E, and 4 others. 1987. The Upper Devonian and Carboniferous sandstones of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Investigation of the geothermal potential of the UK. (Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.)

BROWNE, M A E, ROSS, D L, THOMAS, C W, MCADAM, A D, and ARMSTRONG, M. 1985. Planning for development Fife phase one (Cowdenbeath–Lochgelly). British Geological Survey Technical Report, WA/SL/85/1.

BROWNE, M A E, and WOODHALL, DG. 1999. Geology of the Kirkcaldy district. Sheet Description of the British Geological Survey 1:50 000 Series Sheet 40E (Scotland).

CAMERON, I B, and STEPHENSON, D. 1985. British regional geology: the Midland Valley of Scotland. (3rd edition). (London: HMSO for British Geological Survey).

CAMERON, I B, AITKEN, A M, BROWNE, M A E, and STEPHENSON, D. 1998. Geology of the Falkirk district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 31E (Scotland).

CARRUTHERS, R G, CALDWELL, W, BAILEY, E M, and CONACHER, H R J. 1927. The Oil-Shales of the Lothians. (Third edition). Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

CHISHOLM, J I, and DEAN, J M. 1974. The Upper Old Red Sandstone of Fife and Kinross: a fluviatile sequence with evidence of marine incursion. Scottish Journal of Geology, Vol. 10, 1–30.

CRAIG, G Y (editor). 1991. Geology of Scotland. (3rd edition). (London: The Geological Society.)

CULLINGFORD, R A, and SMITH, D E. 1966. Lateglacial shorelines in eastern Fife. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 39, 31–51.

ELLIOT, R W. 1985. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: resources of clay and mudstone for brickmaking. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

EWING, C J C, and FRANCIS, E H. 1960a. Nos 1 and 2 offshore-borings in the Firth of Forth (1955–1956). Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, No. 16, 1–47.

EWING, C J C, and FRANCIS, E H. 1960b. No. 3 offshore-borings in the Firth of Forth (1956–1957). Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, No. 17, 191–215.

FORSYTH, I H, and CHISHOLM, J I. 1977. The geology of East Fife. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Sheets 41 and part of 49 (Scotland).

FORSYTH, I H, HALL, I H S, and MCMILLAN, A A. 1996. Geology of the Airdrie district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 31W (Scotland).

FOSTER, S S D, STIRLING, W G N, and PATERSON, I B. 1976. Groundwater storage in Fife and Kinross — its potential as a regional resource. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, No. 76/9.

FRANCIS, E H. 1961. The economic geology of the Fife Coalfields. Area IICowdenbeath and Central Fife. (2nd edition). Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

FRANCIS, E H. 1982. Magma and sediment — 1. Emplacement mechanism of late Carboniferous tholeiite sills in northern Britain. Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 139, 1–20.

FRANCIS, E H, and EWING, C J C. 1962. Skipsey's Marine Band and Red Coal Measures in Fife. Geological Magazine, Vol. 99, 145–152.

FRANCIS, E H, and WALKER, B H. 1987. Emplacement of alkali-dolerite sills relative to extrusive volcanism and sedimentary basins in the Carboniferous of Fife, Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences, Vol. 77, 309–323.

GEIKIE, A. 1900. The geology of central and west Fife and Kinross. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland, Sheet 40 and parts of sheets 32 and 48 (Scotland).

GEIKIE, A. 1902. The geology of eastern Fife. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland, Sheet 41 and parts of sheets 40, 48 and 49.

KNOX, J. 1954. The economic geology of the Fife Coalfields: Area IIIMarkinch, Dysart and Leven. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

LOFTUS, G W F, and GREENSMITH, J T. 1988. The lacustrine Burdiehouse Limestone Formation –– a key to the deposition of the Dinantian oil shales of Scotland. 219–234 in Lacustrine petroleum source rocks. FLEET, A J, KELTS, K, and TALBOT, M R (editors). Special Publication of the Geological Society of London, No. 40.

MACDONALD, A M. 1993. An estimation of the capture zone of the Balmalcolm Borehole, Fife. British Geological Survey Technical Report, WD/93/15.

MACGREGOR, A G. 1960. Divisions of the Carboniferous on Geological Survey Scottish maps. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, No. 16, 127–130.

MACGREGOR, A R. 1996. Fife and Angus geology. An excursion guide. (3rd edition). (Edinburgh: The Pentland Press.)

MACGREGOR, M, LEE, G W and WILSON, G V. 1920. The iron ores of Scotland. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

MACPHERSON, K A T. 1986a. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: limestone resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MACPHERSON, K A T. 1986b. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: special sand resources. Openfile Report of the British Geological Survey.

MADDOX, S J. 1988. Palaeoenvironments, stratigraphy and tectonics of parts of the Asbian and Brigantian succession in Fife and the Lothians (eastern part of the Midland Valley of Scotland). Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.

MCADAM, A D, HALL, I H S, ROSS, D L, MACPHERSON, K A T, and SMITH, E P. 1987. Geology for land use planning: Fife Phase Two: Kirkcaldy. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MERRITT, J W. 1985. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: fireclay resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MERRITT, J W, and ELLIOT, R W. 1984. Central Scotland mineral portfolio: hard rock aggregate resources. Open-file Report of the British Geological Survey.

MITCHELL, G H, and MYKURA, W. 1962. The geology of the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland.

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Index to the 1:50 000 Series maps of the British Geological Survey

The map below shows the sheet boundaries and numbers of the 1:50 000 Series geological maps. The maps are numbered in three sequences, covering England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland.The west and east halves of most Scottish 1:50 000 maps are published separately. Almost all BGS maps are available flat or folded and cased.

The area described in this sheet explanation is indicated by a solid block.

(Index map)

British geological maps can be obtained from sales desks in the Survey's principal offices, through the BGS London Information Office at the Natural History Museum Earth Galleries, and from BGSapproved stockists and agents.

Northern Ireland maps can be obtained from the Geological Survey of Northern Ireland.

Figures and plates

Figures

(Figure 1) Simplified geology and structures in the Kirkcaldy district.

(Figure 2) Geological succession in the Kirkcaldy district.

(Figure 3) Devonian rocks in the district.

(Figure 4) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Inverclyde, Strathclyde and Bathgate groups.

(Figure 5) Lower Limestone and Pathhead formations and their relationship to other units.

(Figure 6) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Clackmannan Group.

(Figure 7) Limestone Coal Formation.

(Figure 8) Upper Limestone and Passage formations.

(Figure 9) Coal Measures.

(Figure 10) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Coal Measures.

Plates

(Plate 1) Kinghorn Volcanic Formation: columnar basalt in Orrock Quarry [NT 2210 8855] (MNS06892).

(Plate 2) Trough cross-bedding in the sandstone above the Mill Hill Marine Band, Seafield Tower [NT 2800 8850] (MNS4242).

(Plate 3) Second Hosie (Mid Kinniny) Limestone, Abden Shore: fine reverse faults giving the local name of Thrust Limestone [NT 2810 8820] (MNS4239).

(Plate 4) Strata of the Lower Coal Measures: Dysart Main and Lower Dysart coals, East Balbeggie Opencast looking east [NT 2916 9640] (GN MAEB).

(Front cover) Cover photograph: Stratheden and the north escarpment of the Lomond Hills showing crags formed by the quartz-dolerite sill and the volcanic rocks of East Lomond (D06114).

(Rear cover)

(Index map) Index to the 1:50 000 Series maps of the British Geological Survey

Figures

(Figure 2) Geological succession in the Kirkcaldy district

(Figure 3) Devonian rocks of the district

(Figure 4) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Inverclyde, Strathclyde and Bathgate groups

(Figure 6) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Clackmannan Group

(Figure 10) Carboniferous rocks in the district: Coal Measures